Chapter 2: Higher Education in Science and Engineering: Undergraduate S&E Students and Degrees in the United States

Chapter Contents:

Highlights

Introduction

U.S. Higher Education in Science and Engineering (S&E)

Undergraduate S&E Students and Degrees in the United States

Graduate S&E Students and Degrees in the United States

Increasing Global Capacity in S&E

Conclusion

Selected Bibliography

Figure 2-7

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Figure 2-8

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Figure 2-9

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Figure 2-10

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Figure 2-11

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Figure 2-12

Higher Education in Science and Engineering

Undergraduate S&E Students and Degrees in the United States

Enrollment and Retention in S&E
Associate Degrees
Bachelor’s Degrees

Key challenges for undergraduate education in S&E include preparing teachers for K–12 and college levels (Committee on Science and Mathematics Teacher Preparation (CSMTP) 2001), preparing scientists and engineers to fill needed workforce requirements and provide the capacity for long-term innovation (Romer 2000; NSTC 2000), providing understanding of basic science and mathematics concepts for all students, and measuring what students learn (National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education 2000). These challenges relate to the nation’s ability to retain its innovation capacity and international position in S&T.

The need for undergraduate teaching that could attract and retain students in S&E fields has been widely noted and discussed (National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century 2000). Professional associations (Gaff et al. 2000; Sigma Xi 1999), private foundations (Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities 1997), public officials (National Governors Association 2001), and universities themselves (NSF/EHR Advisory Committee 1998a) have each expressed concern regarding the delivery of undergraduate education.

The nation must also meet its growing need for K–12 teachers, particularly in mathematics and science. Recent studies indicate that in the upcoming decade, the nation’s school districts will need to hire 2.2 million new teachers (U.S. Department of Education 1999), including 240,000 middle and high school mathematics and science teachers (National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching 2000). Of the total, 70 percent will be new to the profession, as teachers retire and the student population increases. The need for new teachers also reflects changes in coursetaking patterns; student demand for high-level mathematics and science courses in high school is increasing. In addition, the need to improve teacher preparation is reflected in the number of teachers teaching in fields other than those for which they were prepared. For example, 20 percent of the middle and high school mathematics teachers hired during the 1993/94 academic year were not certified to teach mathematics (Blank and Langesen 1999). See chapter 1, "Elementary and Secondary Education," for the magnitude of the problem of teachers teaching out of field.

Workplace needs are changing in our information- and service-oriented economy. The workforce requires people competent in mathematics, S&E, critical thinking, and the ability to work in teams (NSTC 2000). Availability of high-level, diverse personnel for basic research, discovery, and innovation depends on a sufficient pool of well-prepared students with bachelor’s degrees who are willing and able to persist through doctoral education.

The growing pressure for accountability calls for measuring the value of higher education by what students learn rather than by campus offerings. A recent study of higher education efforts found all states in the nation deficient in this area (National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education 2000).

This section gives indicators related to some of these challenges, particularly the challenge of preparing a diverse S&E workforce. These indicators include the growing diversity in undergraduate enrollment and intentions to major in S&E fields, the relatively low completion rates of S&E degrees among underrepresented minority students, the need for remediation at the college level, and recent declining trends in the number of earned degrees in most S&E fields. The section also includes recommended reforms to meet the challenges of preparing teachers and measuring student learning and describes programs showing initial signs of success.

Enrollment and Retention in S&E

Undergraduate Enrollment by Sex and Race/Ethnicity

The U.S. college-age population has grown since 1997, and the percentage of high school graduates enrolling in college is increasing for some groups. By 1999, approximately 45 percent of white and 39 percent of black high school graduates were enrolled in college, up from approximately 31 and 29 percent, respectively, in 1979. (See text table 2-6 .) However, during this period, enrollment rates in higher education for Hispanic high school graduates increased only slightly, from 30 to 32 percent. An even greater racial/ethnic disparity exists with respect to Hispanic college enrollment rates based on the total college-age population (including students who did not complete high school or those who recently immigrated to the United States with little education) (Tienda and Simonelli 2001).

In the past two decades, the proportion of white students in U.S. undergraduate enrollment decreased, falling from 80 percent in 1978 to 70 percent in 1997. The proportion of underrepresented minorities increased the most, from 15.7 to 21.7 percent. Asians/Pacific Islanders increased from 2.0 to 5.8 percent, and foreign students remained approximately 2 percent of undergraduate enrollment. Women outnumber men in undergraduate enrollment for every race and ethnic group. White women constitute 55 percent of white undergraduate students, and black women constitute 62 percent of black undergraduate enrollment, which is the greatest difference found among racial groups. (See appendix table 2-8.)

Engineering Enrollment

Generally, engineering programs require students to declare their major in the first year of college, which makes enrollment an early indicator of undergraduate engineering degrees and interest in engineering careers. The annual fall survey of the Engineering Workforce Commission (2000) obtains data on actual enrollment in graduate and undergraduate programs.

The long-term trend has been for fewer students to enter engineering programs. From 1983 to 1990, engineering enrollment decreased sharply, followed by fluctuating and slower declines in the 1990s. Trends differ by degree level. At the bachelor’s degree level, undergraduate enrollment declined by more than 20 percent from 441,000 students in 1983 (the peak year) to 361,000 students in 1999. (See figure 2-7 and appendix table 2-9.) At the associate degree level, enrollment in engineering technology dropped precipitously from 1998 to 1999. The number of first- and second-year students enrolling in such programs declined by 25 and 36 percent, respectively. This associate degree level of engineering technology may be shifting somewhat to workplace training. Graduate engineering enrollment peaked in 1993 and has continued downward since. (See appendix table 2-10.)

Freshmen Intentions to Major in S&E

Whether students in the United States are interested in studying S&E fields is of growing concern. Whether women and minorities are attracted to S&E majors is also of national interest because together they make up the majority of the labor force, and they have traditionally not earned S&E degrees at the same rate as the male majority. Their successful completion of S&E degrees will determine whether there will be an adequate number of entrants into the S&E workforce in the United States. Since 1972, each fall, the Higher Education Research Institute’s Freshman Norms Survey asks a national sample of first-year students in four-year colleges and universities about their intentions to major in an S&E field and their readiness for college-level S&E coursework (Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) 2001). See sidebar, "Freshman Norms Survey."

Retention in S&E

Although approximately 25–30 percent of students entering college in the United States intend to major in S&E fields, a considerable gap exists between freshman intentions and successful completion of S&E degrees. A National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) longitudinal study of first-year S&E students in 1990 found that fewer than 50 percent had completed an S&E degree within five years (U.S. Department of Education (NCES) 2000).[3] Students intending an S&E major in their freshman year explore and switch to other academic departments in undergraduate education, and approximately 20 percent drop out of college. The study also shows that underrepresented minorities complete S&E programs at a lower rate than other groups. A more recent longitudinal study, from 1992 to 1998, traces freshmen retention in S&E by sex, race/ethnicity, and selectivity of the institution. See sidebar, "Retention and Graduation Rates."

Associate Degrees

Trends in S&E Associate Degrees

For more than a decade, the number of associate degrees earned in S&E has fluctuated between 20,000 and 25,000. At the associate level, computer sciences represented the most sought-after S&E field; in 1998, the 13,000 computer science degrees represented 45 percent of all S&E degrees. After a five-year decline from the peak year of 1986, the number of earned degrees in computer sciences increased at an average annual rate of 5.6 percent in the 1990s. Degrees earned in engineering technology (not included in S&E total degrees) are far more numerous than degrees in S&E fields; however, they have experienced a long, steady decline during the past two decades. At the associate level, the number of degrees earned in engineering technology dropped from more than 52,000 in 1981 to 33,000 in 1997, a 36 percent decline. (See appendix table 2-14.)

Associate Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

Trends in the number of associate degrees earned by minority students differ from overall trends. Among Asians/Pacific Islanders, growth in the number of earned computer science degrees occurred during the past several years, from 1995 to 1998; the declining trend in engineering technology was neither as continuous nor as long. Among blacks, the number of degrees earned in engineering technology remained approximately 3,000 per year for the past decade, and degrees earned in computer sciences increased slightly from 1989 to 1997, with strong growth in 1998. Trends among Hispanics showed increases in the number of degrees earned in engineering technology until 1995, followed by three consecutive years of decline and strong growth in computer sciences in the 1990s but from a low base. The number of degrees earned by American Indians/Alaskan Natives increased in all S&E fields from a very low base in 1985. (See appendix table 2-15.)

Although the proportion of degrees earned by students from underrepresented minority groups continues to increase slightly at all levels of higher education, the proportion of degrees earned at the associate level by these groups is considerably higher than that at the bachelor’s or more advanced levels. The proportion of social science degrees earned by these groups at the associate level has traditionally been high (25–28 percent), and the proportion of computer science degrees earned by these students has almost doubled since 1985. (See appendix table 2-15.) In 1998, these students earned approximately 23 percent of the mathematics and computer science degrees at the associate level, a far higher percentage than at the bachelor’s or more advanced levels of higher education. At the advanced levels, the percentage of S&E degrees earned by underrepresented minorities drops off, particularly in natural sciences and engineering (NS&E). In contrast, the decline in the percentage of degrees earned by underrepresented minorities at the advanced levels is smaller in social sciences and non-S&E fields. (See figure 2-10 .)

Bachelor’s Degrees

Percentage of Bachelor’s Degrees in S&E Fields

Are college students earning the same percentage of bachelor’s degrees in S&E fields as in the past, or have more students switched to non-S&E fields? From 1975 to 1998, the ratio of overall S&E degrees to total degrees remained approximately 33 percent. The percentages in fields within S&E, however, shifted during this period. In 1986, the year in which most S&E degrees were earned, engineering represented 8 percent of all bachelor’s degrees earned, followed by a long, slow decline to 5 percent in 1998 (NSF/SRS 2001c). Since 1986, the percentage of bachelor’s degrees earned by undergraduates has also declined slightly in physical sciences, mathematics, and computer sciences. In contrast, since 1986, the percentage of bachelor’s degrees awarded in social and behavioral sciences and in biological sciences has increased. (See text table 2-7 .)

Degree Trends

The number of overall S&E bachelor’s degrees increased in the past two decades and leveled off in the late 1990s. However, the composite rise represents divergent trends in various fields. Biological and agricultural sciences are the only fields that show continuous increases in the number of degrees earned throughout the 1990s. Trends in biological sciences show a long, slow decline in the number of degrees earned in the 1980s but indicate a reversal of this trend in the early 1990s, which continued throughout the decade. The number of degrees earned in psychology increased in the 1990s but leveled off in 1997. In all other S&E fields, the number of degrees earned was either stable or declined. For two decades, students earned a relatively stable number of degrees in the physical sciences and mathematics, with slight declines in mathematics in the past few years. The number of degrees earned in computer sciences peaked in 1986, declined until the early 1990s, and then fluctuated in that decade, with a slight increase in 1997–98. The number of degrees earned in social sciences strongly increased in the 1980s, peaked in 1993, and then declined and leveled off. The number of engineering degrees earned peaked in 1986, declined sharply until 1990, fluctuated within that decade, and declined again in 1998. (See NSF/SRS 2001c and figure 2-11 .)

Bachelor’s Degrees by Sex

The rise in the number of degrees earned in biological sciences and psychology in the 1990s reflects a high proportion of women entering these fields (48 percent in biological sciences and 72 percent in psychology in 1998), thus offsetting the decline expected from the shrinking college-age cohort. The declining number of degrees earned in most other S&E fields is influenced by both the shrinking college-age cohort and an underrepresentation of women and minorities in these fields. Women and minorities continue to be underrepresented in engineering and computer sciences. (See appendix table 2-16.) The sharp decline in the number of degrees earned in computer sciences is probably a combination of demographics and other readily available (non-degree-granting) modes of acquiring skills in this field, such as workplace training, certificate programs, and on-line courses. See sidebars, "New Horizons in Science and Engineering Education" and "Certificate Programs." (See appendix table 2-1.)

Bachelor’s Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

In contrast to overall trends, all minority groups showed an increasing or stable number of degrees earned in most S&E fields in the 1990s. The number of degrees earned by Asians/Pacific Islanders increased in all S&E fields except mathematics. Underrepresented minority groups show a stable number of degrees earned in physical sciences, mathematics, and computer sciences and decade-long increases in degrees earned in social and behavioral sciences, biological sciences, and engineering. In 1998, their number of degrees earned leveled off only in engineering, after a decade-long increase. (See appendix table 2-17 for data by field and figure 2-12 for degree trends of selected groups.)

Bachelor’s Degrees by Citizenship

Foreign students earn a small percentage (3.6 percent) of S&E bachelor’s degrees, a number barely visible on a graph. (See figure 2-12 .) Trends in degrees earned by foreign students show increases in the number of bachelor’s degrees in social sciences, with slight increases in biological sciences and psychology; fluctuating and declining degrees in engineering; and declining degrees in physical sciences, mathematics, and computer sciences. Foreign students in U.S. institutions earn approximately 7–8 percent of bachelor’s degrees awarded in mathematics, computer sciences, and engineering—somewhat lower than the proportion of degrees earned by foreign students in U.K. institutions. In 1999, foreign students in U.K. universities earned almost 30 percent of the bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering and 12 percent of those awarded in mathematics and computer sciences. (See text table 2-8 .)

U.S. Participation Rates in Bachelor’s Degrees and S&E Degrees by Sex and Race/Ethnicity

Traditionally, the United States has been among the leading nations of the world in providing broad access to higher education. The ratio of bachelor’s degrees earned in the United States to the population of the college-age cohort is relatively high: 35 per 100 in 1998. The ratio of natural science and engineering (NS&E) degrees to the population of 24-year-olds in the United States has been between 4 and 5 per 100 for the past several decades and reached 6 per 100 in 1998. Several Asian and European countries have higher participation rates. (See appendix table 2-18 and "International Comparison of Participation Rates in University Degrees and S&E Degrees.")

National statistics on participation rates in S&E fields, however, are not applicable to all minority groups in the United States. The gap in educational attainment between whites and racial/ethnic minorities continues to be wide, particularly in participation rates in S&E fields. In 1998, the ratio of college degrees earned by underrepresented minorities to their college-age populations was 18 per 100, and the ratio of NS&E degrees was 2.6 per 100. Comparison of participation rates in 1980 and 1998 shows considerable progress for underrepresented minority groups in earning bachelor’s degrees, but their rate of earning NS&E degrees is still less than one-half the rate of the total population. (See text table 2-9 .) In contrast, Asians/Pacific Islanders have considerably higher-than-average achievement: the ratio of bachelor’s degrees earned to the college-age population is 47 per 100 and that of NS&E degrees to the college-age population is 14.7 per 100.

One partial explanation given for this gap in educational attainment is that the cost barrier for students from low-income families to attend college is increasing; the needs-based system of financial aid for college students has shifted to a greater reliance on loans, tuition tax credits, and merit-based scholarships (The College Board 2000). The cost of higher education to the middle and upper income groups of the population in terms of percentage of their income consumed has not changed appreciably, whereas the percentage of income necessary for people in the lower income group to earn a college degree has risen considerably (National Governors Association (NGA) 2001).

Recommended Reforms

Recommendations have been offered for meeting the challenges of S&E higher education. They are outlined succinctly in recent studies by the National Research Council (Committee on Undergraduate Science Education 1999; CSMTP 2001) and NSF (Shaping the Future 1998). The recommendations relate to both institutionwide and departmental reforms:

Take an institutional approach to change. The undergraduate education responsibilities of the university should be given high priority by accrediting agencies, discipline and higher education professional organizations, faculty, departments, and university administrators.
Give all students math and science literacy. Postsecondary institutions should provide all students with the strong foundation in mathematics and sciences needed to function in an increasingly technologically complex world and prepare students for careers in S&E.
Help faculty improve their teaching. Faculty and future faculty need to be aware of the latest research in teaching and learning, such as the benefits of incorporating student inquiry and teamwork into their regular classroom practices, collaborative and active learning, discovery- and inquiry-based courses, and incorporating real-world problems into the classroom by asking students to help frame problems and contribute solutions.
Increase undergraduate research. Develop opportunities for all students to engage in undergraduate S&E-related research with particular attention to students majoring in S&E fields, students from groups traditionally underrepresented in these fields, and students preparing to be teachers. Faculty should bring the excitement of new research findings into both lower and upper division courses.
Expand interdisciplinary teaching. Increase multidisciplinary perspectives in science and mathematics undergraduate programs to reflect the increased workplace emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches, such as computational chemistry and bioengineering.
Increase partnerships. Include appropriate industry and other potential employers in planning curricular changes.

Several organizations have made recommendations regarding their responsibilities for preparing high-quality K–12 teachers in science and mathematics, including institutions of higher education (Association of American Universities 1999; American Association of State Colleges and Universities 1999), business groups (National Alliance of Business 2001), and professional societies (CSMTP 2001). Although the strategies to meet their responsibilities differ, their goals to establish exemplary models of teacher preparation whose success can be widely replicated and to find ways to attract additional qualified candidates to teaching are similar.

Strategies offered by research universities and state colleges and universities include the following:

Make teacher education a top campus priority and a joint endeavor between faculty in education programs and faculty in other academic disciplines.
Create and sustain partnerships with schools, state departments of education, informal education providers such as zoos and museums, and local businesses and industries.
Offer undergraduate research experience to future elementary and secondary mathematics and science teachers.
Create sound alternatives for mathematics and science majors to obtain teacher certification.

National agencies such as the Department of Education and NSF have begun funding various support programs tocatalyze efforts to improve teacher preparation. See sidebar, "Meeting the Challenge of Teacher Preparation." Alternative certification programs to increase the nation’s supply of math and science teachers are aimed at those already in S&E careers or S&E majors who would like to enter K–12 teaching (Feistritzer and Chester 2000; Urban Institute 2000). See sidebar, "Alternative Certification for K–12 Teachers."

National data are scarce with regard to how students go through higher education, the extent of participation, and learning outcomes. See sidebar, "Special New Programs," for information about some funding programs and institutions attempting to implement recommended reforms. Changes include focusing on learning outcomes in undergraduate education, increasing diversity of the S&E workforce, incorporating recent advances in teaching and learning into the undergraduate classroom, and augmenting research experiences for undergraduates.

Freshman Norms Survey

The Freshman Norms trend data show that freshmen of every race and ethnicity have high aspirations to study science or engineering (HERI 2001). For the past few decades, approximately 30 percent of white freshmen reported their intention to major in science, engineering, mathematics, or computer sciences; a higher percentage of Asian American students intended to pursue such a major (40–50 percent). In the 1990s, more than one-third of freshmen in underrepresented minority groups intended to major in science and engineering (S&E) fields. The proportion was higher for men in every racial/ethnic group and lower for women. In the 1990s, men in every group reported increased interest in computer sciences. (See appendix table 2-11.)

By 2000, women constituted 44 percent of the first-year college students reporting intentions to major in S&E; 56 percent were men. The data also show increasing racial diversity among freshmen intending to choose an S&E major. By 2000, underrepresented minority groups represented more than 20 percent of those intending to choose an S&E major,[*] up from 8 percent in 1971. The general trend is an increasing proportion of black and Hispanic freshmen among students intending to pursue a natural science or engineering major. (See appendix table 2-12.) For example, from 1986 to 2000, the proportion of underrepresented minorities intending to major in biological sciences or engineering rose from approximately 10 to 18 percent of first-year college students.[†] During the same period, 22–23 percent of underrepresented minority students intended to major in computer sciences, but the proportion intending to study mathematics and statistics declined from 12 to 8 percent. (See appendix table 2-12.)

Are freshmen in the United States ready for college-level coursework? In 2000, more than 20 percent of first-year college students intending to undertake an S&E major reported that they needed remedial work in mathematics; almost 10 percent reported they needed remedial work in the sciences. This percentage has been relatively stable during the past 25 years. (See appendix table 2-13 and S&E Indicators–2000, appendix table 2-12.) There are some differences, however, by field of intended major. Students intending to major in the physical sciences and engineering report a lesser need for remedial work than students in other fields. In contrast, students intending to major in social and biological sciences, as well as in non-S&E fields, report more need for remedial work. (See figure 2-8 .)

[*] In 2000, white students constituted 66 percent of the 18- to 24- year-old population in the United States; underrepresented minority groups constituted 30 percent. (See appendix table 2-2.)
[†] Underrepresented minority students are not uniformly distributed across all institutions, however. They are more concentrated in minority-serving institutions: comprehensive universities and liberal arts colleges, tribal colleges, and historically black colleges and universities.

Retention and Graduation Rates

The Center for Institutional Data Analysis and Exchange (C-IDEA 2000) at the University of Oklahoma recently released a report of its longitudinal study, conducted from 1992 to 1998, of a cohort of college students. The study aimed to gather benchmark statistics on retention rates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology disciplines. The study surveyed 119 colleges and universities ranging from small to large, liberal admission to highly selective admission, and bachelor’s degree–only to doctorate-granting institutions.

In 119 colleges and universities, about 25 percent of all entering first-time freshmen in 1992 declared their intention to major in a science and engineering (S&E) field. By their second year, 33 percent of these students had dropped out of an S&E program. After six years, 38 percent had completed an S&E degree. Women and underrepresented minorities dropped out of S&E programs at a higher rate than men and nonminority students. Consequently, degree completion rates in S&E fields were lower for women (35 percent) and underrepresented minorities (24 percent). (See figure 2-9 .)

The study found that retention rates of S&E majors also differ by institution. Specifically, retention rates are higher at more selective institutions, institutions with fewer part-time undergraduate students, and research institutions that also award postgraduate (master’s and doctoral) degrees.

Meeting the Challenge of Teacher Preparation

In 1998, the Department of Education established Teacher Quality Enhancement grants to encourage comprehensive approaches in improving the quality of teacher preparation programs. Many of these grants are five-year awards with cumulative multimillion-dollar funding. Twenty-five awards were made in fall 1999, and eight awards were made in 2000. Six of these awards were given to institutions that had already begun the process of reform under the National Science Foundation’s Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (CETP) program, which was initiated in 1992.

The 32 systemic (regional in scope) and institutional (concentrated in one or a few related institutions) CETP projects awarded as of fiscal year 2000 included 250 institutions of higher education (13 percent of the projects related to doctoral degrees, 30 percent to two-year degrees, 31 percent to master’s or bachelor’s degrees) and 89 to public high schools.

Data collected in spring 2000 by the systemic projects reveal that 4,050 faculty and 4,979 teachers were involved in the CETP projects’ efforts to produce teachers who are prepared to teach mathematics and science and to teach and use information technology. The institutions involved in the CETP program are distributed within 22 states and produce 38 percent of the teachers in the states in which they operate. Of the 15,896 1999 CETP graduates who have been tracked, 72.4 percent entered the teaching profession, and 17.7 percent were still attending school—most presumably in postbaccalaureate programs necessary for certification in their state (NSF/EHR 2000).

Evaluation of these programs has shown that, generally, the concerted efforts to improve teacher education in mathematics and science have been effective:

Higher student achievement was measured in schools served by the Philadelphia CETP (Temple University). From 1996 to 1999, the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT-9) math and science average test scores and gains for 4th-grade classes in which CETP undergraduates taught during their practica exceeded the citywide average.
Retention of new teachers in the Montana CETP Early Career Support project improved. The attrition rate from teaching for the more than 120 beginning teachers in the Early Career program was approximately 3 percent, far below the national average of 30 percent.
An increase in minority teachers resulted from the efforts of the Montana CETP. In 1992, before CETP was instituted, 5 of the 1,500 mathematics and science teachers in the state of Montana were Native American. By the end of the project in 1999, 11 American Indians had graduated certified to teach mathematics or science, and 77 more were in the pipeline, attending tribal colleges or university campuses for secondary mathematics or science certification.

Alternative Certification for K–12 Teachers

The use of alternative routes to teaching certification is controversial. Although some experts point out the benefits of more traditional programs such as the use of fifth-year certification programs as a route to alternative certification, they also question the value of short-term alternative certification programs. According to a report from the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, evaluations of truncated alternative certification programs reveal that students of these teachers learn less than those taught by traditionally prepared teachers (Darling-Hammond 2000). In addition, the report shows that approximately 60 percent of individuals who enter teaching through such programs leave the profession by their third year compared with approximately 30 percent of traditionally trained teachers and only about 10–15 percent of teachers prepared in extended, five-year teacher education programs.

A contrasting view is that alternative routes attract a significantly higher proportion of minority candidates who are more willing to teach mathematics and science in urban and rural environments. Two examples are Troops-to-Teachers and Teach for America. Troops-to-Teachers enables military retirees to prepare to be teachers through existing teacher preparation programs (approximately 50 percent have entered through an alternative teacher preparation and certification program and 50 percent through traditional college-based programs). Since 1994, this program has brought 3,000 military retirees into the teaching profession. According to a recent survey conducted by the National Center for Education Information, Troops-to-Teachers graduates are more likely than the general teaching population to teach mathematics or science (respectively, 29 versus 13 percent teach mathematics and 16 versus 8 percent teach science), be members of minority groups (30 versus 10 percent), or teach in inner-city schools (24 versus 16 percent) (Troops-to-Teachers 2001).

Teach for America enlists liberal arts graduates directly out of college to teach in poor urban and rural schools for at least two years after a summer training period and an induction period at the beginning of the teaching experience. The program has recruited and placed more than 6,000 individuals in teaching positions; 58 percent of the alumni are still in education, of whom 40 percent are full-time teachers. In 1997, 17 percent of matriculants were mathematics and science majors, and 33 percent were African American or Hispanic (Teach for America 2001).

Special New Programs

Some programs and institutions of higher education have supported recommended reforms.

Focusing on Learning Outcomes
Newly adopted accreditation guidelines for both the Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology (2001) and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education are based on outcome rather than simply on courses of study and admission criteria (Wise 2001).

Recent surveys of higher education institutions have included specific questions related to employer and general public satisfaction and student perception of their experience in terms of the number and quality of their contact with faculty, level of academic challenge, internships and study abroad projects, frequency of student group and community projects, signs of active and collaborative learning, and other factors (NGA Center for Best Practices 2001; PEW Forum on Undergraduate Learning 2000).

Increasing the Diversity of the S&E Workforce
The production of minority science and engineering bachelor’s degrees from the first set of institutions involved in an NSF program aimed at increasing minority S&E students has increased from 3,900 in 1990 to 7,200 in 2000 (Dale 2001).

Incorporating Recent Advances in Teaching and Learning Into the Undergraduate Classroom
Many institutions are experimenting with creating learning communities to encourage S&E students to understand the basic concepts of the phenomena they are studying and to help each other learn. For example, on a single-course basis, a consortium of nearly 60 institutions has added student-led discussion workshops to their organic chemistry classes. Students meet in workshops, are handed observations from a specific chemical technique (e.g., infrared spectroscopy), and are asked to jointly analyze the results. They work in teams and are encouraged to engage everyone on the team in devising solutions. At one participating institution, the University of Rochester, where only 67 percent of organic chemistry students in the early 1990s earned the "C" necessary to enroll in more advanced chemistry courses, 79–82 percent of the students now earn a "C" or better. These results are mirrored throughout the consortium (Cox 2001).

One effort involving a related series of courses is aimed at increasing the retention of entering prescience and preengineering students at the University of Texas at El Paso. Students are assigned to a block of three linked courses (an English course, a mathematics course, and a seminar course with a science or engineering theme) featuring cooperative learning teaching techniques. Twelve percent more of the students in the cluster groups remained S&E majors (80 percent retained) compared with nonclustered students (68 percent retained) (Rothman and Narum 1999).

In response to the findings of research on learning and teaching, numerous efforts have been initiated to more actively involve students in classes. Examples range from course-specific efforts such as those of Eric Mazur, a physics professor at Harvard, to more universal approaches such as the adoption of problem-based learning techniques in all basic science courses at the University of Delaware. As much as one-third of Mazur’s physics classroom time is devoted to consideration of conceptual questions related to the subject of the day. Mazur poses a challenging question to the class, students record their answers via computer, and the results are discussed, resulting in increased student interest and participation and an opportunity for the faculty to correct misconceptions as they occur. The University of Delaware finds that problem-based learning promotes active learning and connects concepts to applications. A real-life science-related problem is presented to students, who then work in groups to gather information from appropriate sources and develop a reasonable solution (The Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates 1998).

Augmenting Research Experiences for Undergraduates
Numerous universities are incorporating research experiences for either a distinct subset or all of their S&E majors. Summer opportunities for research included approximately 400 NSF Research Experiences for Undergraduates projects in the nation in 2000, serving about 4,000 undergraduates (NSF/EHR 2001b); research opportunities for students preparing to be teachers initiated as a joint project of the Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation (NSF/EHR 2001c); and programs supported by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (2001).

To encourage a research-based approach to education in S&E, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute has redesigned its large introductory courses, replacing lecture, recitation, and laboratory with a studio format taught in a specially designed facility by a single faculty member assisted by one graduate student and several undergraduates (The Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates 1998).

The University of Arizona is attempting to make research opportunities an integral part of each student’s undergraduate experience through the introductory biology course, serving about 1,800 students per year. In addition, two undergraduate laboratory research experiences are offered, one in faculty laboratories at the University of Arizona and a followup experience in biomedical research abroad.

Footnotes

[3] A longitudinal study follows the same students for several years.

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