In the past, instruction focused almost exclusively on basic skills, which provided strong results on basic skills tests but may limit student proficiency in more advanced skills such as mathematical reasoning (Knapp, Shields, and Turnbull 1992). A 1992 study found that students who are exposed to instruction that emphasizes "meaning and understanding" score better on standardized tests of advanced academic skills than students who are in classrooms that emphasize arithmetic skills. The study also determined that the focus on meaning and understanding does not hinder proficiency in basic skills but instead facilitates proficiency in basic skills.
Currently, instruction in mathematics and science classrooms is moving slowly toward more student discussion and increased student involvement in the learning activities. ETS (1991) reported a significant increase between 1978 and 1990 in discussion opportunities for 17-year-olds in mathematics classes (51 to 63 percent). However, the percentage of students who make reports or do projects on mathematics was very low (5 percent). Most students (approximately 85 percent) reported that they spend most of the time listening to the teacher explain mathematics lessons, watch the teachers work mathematics problems on the board, and take mathematics tests (NCES 1992b). Nearly 40 percent of students in eighth grade spend less than half of their time in mathematics classes in whole groups, indicating that these students are working in small groups or alone (NCES 1992f). (See figure 1-14.)
Science activities for elementary students are important because they stimulate student interest in science and provide a base for future science learning (Bybee and Landes 1990). Data from ETS (1991) show that the percentage of 9-year-old students who do scientific experiments has remained stable or decreased since 1977, but the percentage of students who have used thermometers and microscopes has increased. The proportion who use calculators remained stable (NCES 1992b). (See text table 1-9.)
At the higher grade levels, students do not participate in many science activities; the classes consist primarily of a teacher lecturing. ETS (1991) found that 61 percent of 8th grade students and 76 percent of 12th graders reported that their teachers lectured in science class several times a week or more. Fewer than half of these students reported that they were asked to do the following activities several times a week or more: asked about reasons for experimental results, to write an experiment, or are asked their opinion on science issues. More students participated in these activities once a week or less. (See figure 1-15.)
As part of its curriculum and instruction recommendations, NCTM suggested that the mathematics curriculum be updated to include technology such as computers and calculators in the classroom. NCTM recommends that
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