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About
U.S.
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
The
Learning
C
u
r
v
e
N A T I O N A L S C I E N C E F O U N D A T I O N
January 1996
National
Science
Foundation
REC
Indicators
Series
Acknowledgments
Highlights
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Student
Achievement
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Curriculum
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Teachers
and
the
Learning
Environment
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.12
Equity
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Demographic
Changes
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.17
Postsecondary
Education
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.17
Toward the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Table of Contents
List of Figures
V I L I S T O F F I G U R E S
important
areas
of
study.
And
U.S.
colleges
and
universities
are
awarding
more
bachelors,
masters,
and
doctoral
degrees
in
the
natural
sciences
and
engineering.
Moreover,
members
of
all
racial
and
ethnic
groups
are
sharing
in
a
number
of
the
notable
gains
made
by
the
Nations
science
and
mathematics
students;
for
example,
a
greater
proportion
of
U.S.
high
school
students,
regardless
of
race
or
ethnic
background,
are
now
satisfactorily
completing
courses
in
science
and
mathematics.
Achievement
scores
in
these
fields
are
on
the
rise
for
students
of
all
races.
And
there
is
a
discernible
increase
in
the
number
of
blacks,
Hispanics,
and
Native
Americans
earning
bachelors
degrees
in
science
and
engineering.
These
and
an
array
of
other
encouraging
findings
are
offered
in
an
NSF
presentation
of
statistical
data
or
indicators
concerning
the
students,
teachers,
systems,
curricula,
learning
environments,
teaching
methods,
and
other
components
of
the
Nations
science
and
mathematics
education
community.
Titled
Indicators
of
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
1995,
the
report
was
created
in
compliance
with
a
1991
mandate
from
the
U.S.
Congress.
Like
its
1992
predecessor,
for
which
it
serves
as
an
update,
the
latest
volume
is
intended
for
use
by
anyone
seeking
qualitative
and
quantitative
information
on
trends
in
elementary,
secondary,
and
postsecondary
education.
NSF
expects
the
reports
readership
to
be
broad
in
scope,
including
educators,
elected
officials,
government
policy
makers,
social
commentators,
professional
scientists
and
mathematicians,
and
the
general
public
all
citizens,
that
is,
who
support
the
notion
that
significant
improvement
in
U.S.
science
and
mathematics
education
should
rank
among
the
Nations
highest
priorities.
For
those
who
share
in
the
hope
that
U.S.
science
and
mathematics
education
is
effectively
preparing
our
young
people
to
live,
work,
and
prosper
in
a
technologyintensive,
increasingly
competitive
global
society,
the
report
offers
grounds
for
cautious
optimism.
Indeed,
based
on
hundreds
of
statistical
findings
gathered
by
NSF
from
a
wide
variety
of
authoritative
national
surveys,
Indicators
of
Science
and
T
H
E
L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G
C
U
RV
E
1
What
is
an
Indicator?
An
indicator
is
a
statistic
that
describes
the
health
of
a
system
or
the
status
of
an
important
policy
issue.
u
Particularly
encouraging
is
the
growing
awareness
among
elementary
school
teachers
and
curriculum
designers
that
a
familiarity
with
basic
concepts
in
science
and
mathematics
should
be
introduced
to
students
at
an
early
age.
Measured
in
blocks
of
time
ranging
from
approximately
20
minutes
to
100
minutes,
the
average
amount
of
classroom
time
per
day
dedicated
to
science
and
mathematics
for
grades
1
through
6
rose
substantially
between
1977
and
1993,
according
to
a
1993
National
Survey
of
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
(NSSME),
one
of
several
sources
for
the
Indicators
of
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
1995.
u
Furthermore,
students
early
exposure
to
science
and
mathematics
is
now
being
parlayed
beneficially
through
their
high
school
years
far
more
effectively
than
it
has
been
in
the
past,
thanks
largely
to
an
increase
in
the
number
of
states
that
are
imposing
stricter
graduation
requirements
in
these
areas
of
study.
In
1974,
about
15
percent
of
states
required
2
or
more
years
of
mathematics
for
graduation;
in
1992,
the
figure
was
approaching
90
percent.
Consistent
with
elevated
graduation
requirements,
the
increased
availability
of
advanced
science
and
mathematics
courses
at
the
secondary
level
is
evident
nationwide.
Currently,
nearly
100
percent
of
all
U.S.
high
schools
offer
courses
not
only
in
introductory
algebra,
geometry,
and
biology,
but
also
in
chemistry,
physics,
algebra
II,
and
trigonometry.
u
Along
with
more
stringent
high
school
graduation
requirements
and
the
availability
of
advanced
science
and
mathematics
courses,
the
level
of
preparation
of
postsecondary
science
and
engineering
students
and
the
number
of
college
degrees
being
awarded
in
these
areas
are
rising.
Much
of
this
progress
has
been
made
within
the
very
recent
past.
High
school
students
who
in
1993
planned
an
undergraduate
major
in
the
natural
sciences
or
engineering
were,
for
the
most
part,
better
prepared
than
were
their
counterparts
just
3
years
earlier.
Between
1990
and
1993,
for
example,
the
proportion
of
intended
natural
science
or
engineering
majors
who
took
calculus
in
high
school
rose
from
about
one-quarter
to
one-third,
while
the
proportion
of
those
taking
physics
increased
from
about
one-half
to
almost
two-thirds.
u
Among
the
most
encouraging
trends
noted
in
the
report
is
the
increase
in
the
number
of
women
with
degrees
in
science
fields.
Between
1971
and
1991,
the
percent
of
bachelors
degrees
in
science
and
engineering
fields
awarded
to
women
increased
from
29
to
44
percent
and
the
percent
of
doctoral
degrees
awarded
to
women
increased
from
10
to
28
percent.
Steady
increases
occurred
over
the
past
20
years
in
the
number
of
women
receiving
bachelors
and
doctoral
degrees
in
science
fields
while
the
number
of
men
receiving
degrees
did
not
increase.
While
the
number
of
women
receiving
doctorates
in
science
fields
has
increased
by
more
than
threefold
since
1971,
the
number
of
men
receiving
doctoral
degrees
is
about
the
same
in
1991
as
in
1971.
2 P R E S E N T I N G T H E I N D I C AT O R S
u
While
more
high
school
students
of
all
races
are
enrolling
in
and
successfully
completing
science
and
mathematics
courses,
and
although
test
scores
of
all
students
have
improved
during
the
past
decade,
scores
for
white
students
remain
significantly
higher
than
those
for
black
and
Hispanic
students.
And
although
more
blacks,
Hispanics,
and
Native
Americans
are
earning
bachelors
degrees
in
science
and
engineering
today
than
ever
before,
all
three
minority
groups
remain
underrepresented
in
relation
to
their
presence
in
the
overall
U.S.
college-age
population.
u
Despite
some
modest
gains
since
1988,
women
and
minorities
continue
to
be
underrepresented
on
U.S.
higher
education
science
and
engineering
faculties.
u
While
todays
students
have
parents
with
higher
levels
of
education
a
factor
that
many
experts
consider
a
positive
influence
on
academic
proficiency
these
students
are
more
likely
to
be
members
of
one-parent
families
and
to
be
living
in
poverty
factors
that
many
experts
consider
a
negative
influence
on
performance.
u
Eighth-grade
mathematics
achievement
in
some
states
(Iowa,
North
Dakota,
and
Minnesota)
was
the
same
as
in
top-performing
countries
(Taiwan,
Korea,
and
former
Soviet
Union),
while
achievement
in
the
lowest
performing
states
(Arkansas,
Alabama,
Louisiana,
and
Mississippi)
was
about
the
same
as
in
the
lowest
performing
country
(Jordan).
u
Despite
increases
in
the
time
and
attention
being
devoted
to
science
and
mathematics,
the
high
school
graduation
requirements
for
these
subjects
in
many
states
still
fall
short
of
the
4
years
of
each
that
has
been
recommended
by
education
reform
advocates.
These
and
a
wealth
of
other
significant
revelations
emerge
from
the
array
of
indicators
presented
in
the
report,
a
sampling
of
which
appears
in
Highlights
(page
8
of
this
summary
report).
In
creating
Indicators
of
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
1995,
NSF
has
focused
on
collecting,
synthesizing,
analyzing,
evaluating,
and
presenting
relevant
data.
Standards
and
the
Quest
for
Reform
Over
the
past
decade,
science
and
mathematics
education
standards
have
been
articulated
by
a
number
of
prestigious
organizations,
such
as
the
National
Council
for
Teachers
of
Mathematics,
the
National
Research
Council,
the
National
Science
Teachers
Association,
and
the
American
Association
for
the
Advancement
of
Science.
While
differing
in
details,
the
standards
are
consistent
in
providing
guidelines
for
instruction,
calling
for
improvement
in
teacher
qualifications
and
the
learning
environment,
and
setting
levels
of
expectation
for
student
achievement.
The
standards
reinforce
the
notion
that
the
pursuit
of
excellence
must
be
open
to
all
students,
regardless
of
their
sex,
race,
or
the
community
in
which
they
live.
T H E L E A R N I N G C U RV E 3
u
All
students
should
be
expected
to
attain
a
high
level
of
scientific
and
mathematical
competency.
u
Students
should
learn
science
and
mathematics
as
active
processes
focused
on
a
limited
number
of
concepts.
u
Curricula
should
stress
understanding,
reasoning,
and
problem
solving
rather
than
memorization
of
facts,
terminology,
and
algorithms.
u
Teachers
should
engage
students
in
meaningful
activities
that
regularly
and
effectively
employ
calculators,
computers,
and
other
tools
in
the
course
of
instruction.
u
Teachers
need
both
a
deep
understanding
of
subject
matter
and
the
opportunity
to
learn
to
teach
in
a
manner
that
reflects
research
on
how
students
learn.
One
way
the
standards
and
goals
of
excellence
and
equity
in
science
and
mathematics
education
have
been
implemented
is
through
efforts
to
reform
many
aspects
of
the
school
system
at
once
an
approach
entailing
a
coordinated
national
initiative,
as
opposed
to
piecemeal
remedial
efforts,
to
address
all
critical
components
of
the
prevailing
educational
system.
Dr.
Luther
S.
Williams,
Assistant
Director
of
NSFs
Directorate
for
Education
and
Human
Resources,
says
that
systemic
reform
is
a
revolutionary
vehicle
to
ameliorate
the
performance
gap
which
demographics
dictate
we
must
do
in
order
to
achieve
Goals
2000
for
all
of
our
students.
4
P
R
E
S
E
N
T
I
N
G
T
H
E
I
N
D
I
C
AT
O
R
S
What
are
the
Standards?
National
standards
provide
an
explicit
set
of
expectations
for
teaching
and
learning.
Stressing
the
importance
of
mathematics
and
science
for
all
students,
they
provide
a
vision
that
is
based
on
our
best
understanding
of
teaching
and
learning.
Standards
provide
the
basis
for
guiding
educational
programs
and
for
measuring
the
accomplishments
of
our
educational
institutions.
u
Curricular
reform
for
all
students
at
all
grade
levels,
including
the
establishment
of
achievement
standards
based
on
the
ability
to
master
scientific
processes
rather
than
memorization
of
facts
or
formulas.
u
Changes
in
the
learning
environment,
including
pedagogic
reform,
with
teachers
emphasizing
active
student
involvement
through
discussion,
problem
solving,
hands-on
activities,
and
small-group
work.
u
More
opportunities
for
all
students
to
use
calculators
and
computers
in
the
classroom
and
for
homework.
u
More
exposure
of
low-achieving
students
to
the
full
range
of
educational
opportunities
and
demands.
u
Assessment
reform
that
replaces
tests
based
on
factual
knowledge
with
tests
that
measure
the
ability
to
reason,
solve
problems,
and
use
scientific
principles.
T H E L E A R N I N G C U RV E 5
What
is
Systemic
Reform?
Systemic
reform
is
a
process
of
educational
reform
based
on
the
premise
that
achieving
excellence
and
equity
requires
alignment
of
critical
activities
and
components.
It
is
as
much
a
change
in
infrastructure
as
in
outcomes.
Central
elements
include
u
High
standards
for
learning
expected
from
all
students;
u
Alignment
among
all
the
parts
of
the
system
policies,
practices,
and
accountability
mechanisms;
u
A
change
in
governance
that
includes
greater
school
site
flexibility;
u
Greater
involvement
of
the
public
and
the
community;
u
A
closer
link
between
formal
and
informal
learning
experiences;
u
Enhanced
attention
to
professional
development;
and
u
Increased
articulation
between
the
precollege
and
postsecondary
education
institutions.
u
Are
current
reform
efforts
succeeding
in
improving
science
and
mathematics
education?
u Has overall achievement improved?
u
Do
students
in
each
state
and
region
of
the
country
perform
equally?
u
Are
achievement
levels
among
ethnic
groups
converging?
u
Have
differences
in
the
achievement
levels
of
the
United
States
and
other
countries
narrowed?
u Is a reduction occurring in the practice of grouping students by ability level?
u
Is
there
an
increase
in
the
number
of
teacher-development
programs
that
emphasize
new
methods
of
science
and
mathematics
instruction?
u
Is
there
an
increase
in
the
number
of
teachers
with
undergraduate-level
coursework
in
science
and
mathematics?
u
Is
there
an
increase
in
the
number
of
teachers
who
belong
to
racial
and
ethnic
minorities,
especially
in
schools
with
large
minority
student
populations?
Data
Sources
Since
its
establishment
in
1950,
one
of
NSFs
missions
has
been
to
provide
research,
guidance,
and
support
for
U.S.
science
and
mathematics
education.
NSFs
role
extends
into
the
compilation
of
statistical
data
about
science
and
mathematics
programs
gathered
by
Federal
agencies,
such
as
the
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
NSF
analyzes
statistical
information
from
outside
sources
as
well
and
develops
appropriate
methods
for
evaluating
the
effectiveness
of
programs
and
initiatives.
Creation
of
the
biennial
indicators
report,
therefore,
builds
on
the
agencys
leadership
as
compiler,
reviewer,
and
interpreter
of
complex
data.
While
the
1992
Indicators
of
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
report
primarily
described
science-
and
mathematics-related
trends
from
1970
to
1990,
the
latest
document
focuses
wherever
possible
on
information
regarding
student
proficiency,
curricula,
learning
environments,
demographics,
and
so
forth,
that
has
been
gathered
through
1993.
Therefore,
the
1995
report
serves
as
an
update
on
the
ways
in
which
the
important
issues
in
science
and
mathematics
education
that
were
analyzed
in
the
1992
edition
continue
to
change.
6 P R E S E N T I N G T H E I N D I C AT O R S
The
1995
report
is
presented
in
three
main
chapters,
covering
student
achievement,
characteristics
of
elementary
and
secondary
education,
and
progress
in
postsecondary
education.
The
indicators
were
chosen
by
the
authors
of
each
chapter,
who
were
guided
by
members
of
an
advisory
committee
and
by
publications
on
the
status
of
relevant
indicators.
In
the
selection
of
the
indicators,
a
special
effort
was
made
to
address
salient
issues
and
trends
of
specific
concern
to
school
administrators
and
decision
makers
in
the
congressional
and
executive
branches
of
government.
The
data
cover,
for
example,
the
policy
environment
of
educational
reform,
the
demographic
context
of
education,
student
achievement
in
science
and
math,
reforms
in
science
and
mathematics
education
on
the
elementary
and
secondary
levels,
and
trends
in
postsecondary
science
and
engineering
education.
The
report
also
discusses
the
overall
state
of
educational
reform
and
highlights
the
types
of
indicators
required
to
assess
future
progress.
T H E L E A R N I N G C U RV E 7
Student
Achievement
Science
and
mathematics
proficiency
among
high
school
students,
regardless
of
race,
gained
between
1977
and
1992
(see
figure
1)
a
change
that
may
be
attributed
in
part
to
the
fact
that
many
more
students
are
taking
advanced
science
and
mathematics
courses
in
high
school
as
a
result
of
changes
in
requirement
policies
within
each
state.
However,
while
a
higher
percentage
of
13-year-old
students
scored
250
or
higher
on
the
NAEP
science
and
mathematics
proficiency
test
in
1992
than
in
1977,
recent
comparisons
of
achievement
show
13-year-old
U.S.
students
scoring
below
students
of
other
countries.
(See
figure
2.)
These
latter
data,
based
on
a
1991
study,
substantiated
results
from
earlier
studies
that
provided
the
impetus
for
efforts
to
improve
science
and
mathematics
education
in
the
United
States.
Notwithstanding,
a
recent
reanalysis
of
data
shows
that
there
are
sharp
differences
in
student
mathematics
performance
among
states
in
the
United
States
that
match
differences
among
countries.
(See
figures
2
and
3.)
A
comparison
of
international
and
state
proficiencies
shows,
for
example,
that
eighth-
grade
performance
in
the
highest
ranking
states
(Iowa,
North
Dakota,
and
Minnesota)
was
the
same
as
in
the
8 H I G H L I G H T S
1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
at
or
above
250
Science
Age
17
Age
13
Age
9
1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
at
or
above
250
Mathematics
Age
17
Age 13
Age
9
SOURCE:
Mullis,
I.V.S.,
et
al.
(1994).
NAEP
[National
Assessment
of
Educational
Progress]
1992
trends
in
academic
progress
(Report
No.
23-TR01).
Washington,
DC:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
Science
and
mathematics
proficiency
percent
of
students
at
or
above
anchor
point
250,
by
age:
1977
to
1992
NOTES:
International
data
are
1991.
All
U.S.
data
are
1992.
Only
41
states
and
the
District
of
Columbia
volunteered
to
participate
in
the
study.
SOURCE:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics
(NCES).
(1993).
Education
in
states
and
nations:
Indicators
comparing
U.S.
states
with
the
OECD
countries
in
1988
(NCES
93-237).
Washington,
DC:
NCES.
Mean (average) District of Columbia
Mississippi
JORDAN
Louisiana
Alabama
Arkansas
Hawaii
West Virginia
Tennessee
North Carolina
New Mexico
Georgia
Florida
South Carolina
California
Kentucky
UNITED STATES
Delaware
SPAIN
Texas
Maryland
Rhode Island
Arizona
SLOVENIA
New York
Virginia
Oklahoma
Ohio
Michigan
SCOTLAND
IRELAND
Indiana
Missouri
CANADA
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Massachusetts
ITALY
ISRAEL
Colorado
FRANCE
Connecticut
Wyoming
Utah
Idaho
Wisconsin
Nebraska
HUNGARY
New Hampshire
Maine
SWITZERLAND
SOVIET UNION
Minnesota
North Dakota
KOREA
Iowa
TAIWAN
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
310
330
350
Score
Mean score
Range
of
scores
(between
5th
and
95th
percentile)
within
U.S.
states
Range
of
scores
(between
5th
and
95th
percentile)
within
countries
Nonparticipant*
260 to 266
273
277
277
276
275
272
276
278
279
272
281
284
284
284
275
265
263
282
274
273
262
264
266
264
260 275
266
270
273
276
276
279
279
278
272
283 283
278
271
277
F
I
G
U
R
E
3
Mean
scores
of
13-year-old
public
school
students
on
NAEP
mathematics
test,
by
race:
1992
265
251
or
higher
244
to
250
237
to
243
Nonparticipant*
220-236
245
240
238
247
253
261
254
257
253
253
248
248
252
254 251
228
228
246
249
245
223
220
227
231
230
254
238
233
233
248
246
243
240
239
247 241
232
Hispanic
240
258
DC=225
251
or
higher
244
to
250
237
to
243
Nonparticipant*
230-236
236
233
251
241
243
238
236
241
230
232
246
234
243
230
231
234
241
243
244
238
241
241
232
237
232
239
241
242
242
240
Black
243
DC=233
*This
category
also
includes
states
where
there
were
too
few
sample
cases
for
a
reliable
estimate.
SOURCE:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
(1993).
Data
almanac:
NAEP's
1992
assessment
in
mathematics
[CD-ROM].
Princeton,
NJ:
Education
Testing
Service
[Producer].
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Department
of
Education
[Distributor].
1 0 H I G H L I G H T S
Within
the
United
States,
differences
in
student
mathematics
achievement
are
not
simply
a
reflection
of
the
concentration
of
racial
or
ethnic
groups
in
some
regions.
For
example,
large
differences
in
state
mathematics
scores
exist
for
white
and
Hispanic
students
across
regions
and
small
differences
exist
for
black
students
across
regions.
Overall,
students
in
the
Midwest
had
the
highest
NAEP
mathematics
scores,
and
students
in
the
Southeast
had
the
lowest
scores.
(See
figure
3.)
Curriculum
Elementary
schools
are
placing
more
emphasis
on
science
and
mathematics
education
by
devoting
more
classroom
time
to
it.
(See
figure
4.)
Since
1977,
the
time
devoted
to
science
and
mathematics
has
been
more
in
line
with
recommendations
incorporated
in
the
standards
delineated
by
various
organizations.
1977* 1986 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
Number
of
minutes
per
day
Grades 1 3
Reading
Mathematics
Science
1977 1986 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
Number
of
minutes
per
day
Grades 4 6
Reading
Mathematics
Science
F
I
G
U
R
E
4
Average
number
of
minutes
per
day
spent
teaching
each
subject
to
self-contained
classes,
by
grade
range:
1977
to
1993
*
1977
data
include
kindergarten.
SOURCES:
Weiss,
I.R.
(1987).
Report
of
the
1985
86
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Research
Triangle
Park,
NC:
Research
Triangle
Institute;
Weiss,
I.R.,
Matti,
M.C.,
&
Smith,
P.S.
(1994).
Report
of
the
1993
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Chapel
Hill,
NC:
Horizon
Research,
Inc.
74 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent
of
states
No state requirements
2 or more years of math
80
83
85
87
89
92
90
SOURCES:
Stecher,
B.
(1991).
Describing
secondary
curriculum
in
mathematics
and
science:
Current
conditions
and
future
indicators
(N-3406-NSF).
A
RAND
note
presented
to
the
National
Science
Foundation,
Arlington,
VA;
Blank,
R.K.
&
Gruebel,
D.
(1993).
State
Indicators
of
Science
and
Mathematics
Education
1993.
Washington,
DC:
Council
of
Chief
State
School
Officers.
F
I
G
U
R
E
5
Percent
of
states
imposing
graduation
requirements
in
mathematics:
1974
to
1992
Despite
elevated
graduation
requirements
by
states,
the
requirements
still
fall
short
of
the
standards
recommended
by
reform
advocates
4
years
each
of
science
and
math.
By
1992,
high
school
graduates
earned
about
3
years
each
in
science
and
mathematics.
(See
figure
6.)
Teachers
and
the
Learning
Environment
Overall,
high
school
teachers
are
likely
to
be
academically
well
prepared
to
teach
science
and
mathematics,
but
elementary
teachers
are
likely
to
be
unprepared.
(See
figure
7.)
This
is
an
important
matter,
since
teachers
ability
to
implement
science
and
mathematics
reform,
such
as
early
introduction
of
challenging
concepts
and
ideas,
often
depends
on
their
own
levels
of
competence
and
professionalism.
Only
about
two-thirds
of
teachers
of
grades
1
through
8
have
completed
at
least
one
college
course
in
the
biological,
physical,
or
earth
sciences.
Indeed,
less
than
30
percent
of
elementary
school
teachers
say
they
feel
well
qualified
to
teach
life
science,
while
60
percent
feel
well
qualified
to
teach
mathematics
and
close
to
80
percent
feel
well
qualified
to
teach
reading.
1
2
H
I
G
H
L
I
G
H
T
S
1982
1987
1990
1992
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
English
Mathematics
Science
History or social studies
F
I
G
U
R
E
6
Mean
number
of
credits
earned
by
high
school
graduates
in
each
subject
field:
1982
to
1992
NOTE:
Credits
are
measured
as
Carnegie
Units.
SOURCES:
Legum,
S.,
et
al.
(1993).
The
1990
high
school
transcript
study
tabulations:
Comparative
data
on
credits
earned
and
demographics
for
1990,
1987,
and
1982
high
school
graduates
(NCES
93-423).
Washington,
DC:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics;
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
(1992).
National
education
longitudinal
study
of
1988:
Second
teacher
follow-up
study.
Unpublished
tabulations.
Mean
number
of
credits
earned
1 4 5 8 9 12 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percent
of
teachers
Grade range
1 3
11
21
63
72
Science teachers
Mathematics teachers
F
I
G
U
R
E
7
Percent
of
science
and
mathematics
teachers
with
undergraduate
or
graduate
majors
in
science
or
mathematics
fields,
by
grade
range:
1993
NOTE:
"Field"
includes
any
science
or
science
education
major
for
science
teachers
and
any
mathematics
or
mathematics
education
major
for
mathematics
teachers.
SOURCE:
Weiss,
I.R.,
Matti,
M.C.,
&
Smith,
P.S.
(1994).
Report
of
the
1993
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Chapel
Hill,
NC:
Horizon
Research,
Inc.
90
100
Overall,
teachers
are
not
yet
following
recommendations
for
reforming
classroom
practice;
for
example,
teachers
have
not
implemented
early
introduction
of
algebraic
concepts
or
alternative
assessments.
Additionally,
despite
strong
recommendations
for
hands-on
approaches
in
science
and
mathematics
education,
teachers
still
rely
heavily
on
lectures.
Fewer
than
40
percent
of
junior
high
or
high
school
classes
used
hands-on
activities
in
their
most
recent
lesson.
(See
figure
9.)
Teachers
may
not
be
following
recommendations
for
reforming
classroom
practice
because
science
and
mathematics
classrooms
tend
to
lack
adequate
facilities
or
supplies,
such
as
up-todate
textbooks
or
modern
computers.
T
H
E
L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G
C
U
RV
E
1
3
1
4
5
8
9
12
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
teachers
Grade
range
More
than
35
hours
6
35
hours
Less
than
6
hours
None
1 4 5 8 9 12 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
teachers
Grade range
Science Mathematics
SOURCE:
Weiss,
I.R.,
Matti,
M.C.,
&
Smith,
P.S.
(1994).
Report
of
the
1993
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Chapel
Hill,
NC:
Horizon
Research,
Inc.
F
I
G
U
R
E
8
Percent
of
science
and
mathematics
teachers
with
various
amounts
of
in-service
education
in
these
fields
during
the
past
3
years:
1993
0
20
40
60
80
Percent
of
classes
Grades
1
3
Science
Mathematics
1977*
1986
1993
1977
1986
1993
1977
1986
1993
1977
1986
1993
Grades
4
6
Grades
7
9
Grades
10
12
*
1977
data
include
kindergarten.
SOURCES:
Weiss,
I.R.
(1987).
Report
of
the
1985
86
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Research
Triangle
Park,
NC:
Research
Triangle
Institute;
Weiss,
I.R.
(1994).
1993
National
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Unpublished
tabulations.
F
I
G
U
R
E
9
Percent
of
classes
using
hands-on
activities
in
most
recent
lesson,
by
subject
and
grade
range:
1977
to
1993
100
1 4 H I G H L I G H T S
1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age
17
at
or
above
300
Male
Female
Science
1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age 17 at or above 300
Mathematics
Female
Male
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
0
Science
and
mathematics
proficiency
percent
of
students
at
or
above
selected
anchor
points,
by
age
and
sex:
1977
to
1992
1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age
13
at
or
above
250
Male
Female
1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age
13
at
or
above
250
Female
Male
1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age
9
at
or
above
200
Male
Female
1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Female
Male
SOURCE:
Mullis,
I.V.S.,
et
al.
(1994).
NAEP
[National
Assessment
of
Educational
Progress}
1992
trends
in
academic
progress
(Report
No.
23-TR01).
Washington,
DC:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
Age 9 at or above 200
Between
1982
and
1992,
female
and
male
high
school
graduates
earned
credit
in
all
science
and
mathematics
courses
at
about
the
same
rate,
except
in
physics,
where
males
significantly
exceeded
females.
(See
figure
12.)
However,
substantial
differences
in
course
taking
existed
among
students
in
various
racial
and
ethnic
groups.
(See
figure
13.)
For
example,
while
about
the
same
proportion
of
white,
black,
and
Hispanic
high
school
graduates
had
earned
credits
in
biology
and
introductory
algebra
in
1992,
a
significantly
higher
proportion
of
white
graduates
had
completed
courses
in
chemistry,
physics,
geometry,
advanced
algebra,
and
trigonometry.
T
H
E
L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G
C
U
RV
E
1
5
1977
1982
1986
1990
1992
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age 17 at or above 300
White
Black
Hispanic
Science
1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age
13
at
or
above
250
White
Black
Hispanic
1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age 17 at or above 300
Mathematics
Black
Hispanic
White
1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Age 13 at or above 250
Black
Hispanic
White
SOURCE:
Mullis,
I.V.S.,
et
al.
(1994).
NAEP
[National
Assessment
of
Educational
Progress]
1992
trends
in
academic
progress
(Report
No.
23-TR01).
Washington,
DC:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
1
Science
and
mathematics
proficiency
percent
of
students
at
or
above
selected
anchor
points,
by
age,
and
race
or
ethnic
origin:
1977
to
1992
1982 1987 1990 1992 0
20
40
60
80
100
Male
Female
Geometry
Algebra
II
Trigonometry
Calculus
Percent
Mathematics
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
2
Percent
of
high
school
graduates
earning
credits
in
science
and
mathematics
courses,
by
subject
and
sex:
1982
to
1992
1982 1987 1990 1992
Male
Female
Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Science
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
graduates
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
3
Percent
of
high
school
graduates
earning
credits
in
science
and
mathematics
courses,
by
race
or
ethnic
origin:
1982
to
1992
Any science Biology
Chemistry
Physics
82 87 90 92 82 87 90 92 82 87 90 92 82 87 90 92
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
graduates
Algebra
I
Geometry
Algebra
II
Trigonometry
White
Black
Hispanic
NOTE:
Credits
are
measured
in
Carnegie
Units.
SOURCES:
Legum,
S.,
et
al.
(1993).
The
1990
high
school
transcript
study
tabulations:
Comparative
data
on
credits
earned
and
demographics
for
1990,
1987,
and
1982
high
school
graduates
(NCES
93-423).
Washington,
DC:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics;
Smith,
T.M.,
et
al.
(1994).
The
condition
of
education,
1994
(NCES
94-149).
Washington,
DC:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
82 87 90 92 82 87 90 92 82 87 90 92 82 87 90 92
NOTE:
High
school
includes
grades
10
12.
Weiss,
I.R.
(1987).
Report
of
the
1985
1986
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Research
Triangle
Park,
NC:
Research
Triangle
Institute;
Weiss,
I.R.
(1994).
1993
National
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Unpublished
tabulations.
Science
Mathematics
Science
Mathematics
Science Science Mathematics
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Low ability
86
High
ability
Average
ability
Heterogeneous
classes
Percent
of
classes
Homogeneous classes
93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93
Mathematics
During
this
same
period,
ability
grouping
assigning
students
to
specific
classes
such
as
honors
or
remedial
courses
in
secondary
science
and
mathematics
classrooms
declined,
creating
a
more
heterogeneous
environment.
(See
figure
14.)
Whatever
may
have
stimulated
this
change,
it
is
a
move
toward
greater
classroom
equity,
since
homogeneous
classrooms
may
deprive
low-achieving
students
of
exposure
to
demanding
coursework
and
the
stimulation
and
encouragement
to
achieve.
Demographic
Changes
During
the
past
two
decades,
the
demographic
context
of
the
U.S.
educational
sysSOURCES:
tem
has
evolved
in
ways
that
directly
influence
averages
of
student
performance.
For
example,
students
were
more
likely
to
be
living
below
the
poverty
level
in
1993
than
in
1970;
the
proportion
of
students
between
6
and
17
years
old
living
in
poverty
rose
from
14
percent
to
20
percent
during
that
period.
At
the
same
time,
the
proportion
of
all
parents
who
had
received
at
least
some
college
education
increased
from
25
percent
in
1970
to
49
percent
in
1993.
The
trend
held
for
white,
black,
and
Hispanic
parents,
although
in
1993,
parents
of
Hispanic
students
still
had
less
education
than
parents
of
white
or
black
students.
Additionally,
the
proportion
of
families
with
children
younger
than
age
18
living
with
only
one
parent
increased
from
only
13
percent
in
1970
to
30
percent
by
1993.
Postsecondary
Education
In
the
past,
the
primary
purpose
of
secondary
science
and
engineering
education
was
seen
as
to
provide
credentials
to
students
seeking
to
enter
the
workforce
in
science
and
engineering.
Recently,
this
task
has
been
augmented
by
the
need
to
prepare
users
T
H
E
L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G
C
U
RV
E
1
7
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
4
Ability
composition
of
high
school
science
and
mathematics
classes:
1986
and
1993
NOTE:
High
school
includes
grades
10
12.
SOURCES:
Weiss,
I.R.
(1987).
Report
of
the
1985
1986
national
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Research
Triangle
Park,
NC:
Research
Triangle
Institute;
Weiss,
I.R.
(1994).
1993
National
survey
of
science
and
mathematics
education.
Unpublished
tabulations.
Science
Mathematics
Science
Mathematics
Science Science Mathematics
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Low ability
86
High
ability
Average
ability
Heterogeneous
classes
Percent
of
classes
Homogeneous classes
93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93 86 93
Mathematics
As
the
value
of
postsecondary
education
has
increased
across
all
sectors
of
the
economy,
the
percentage
of
high
school
students
aspiring
to
obtain
a
bachelors,
or
higher,
degree
has
increased
dramatically,
regardless
of
sex,
race,
or
ethnic
origin.
(See
figure
15.)
During
the
1980s,
despite
decreases
in
the
population
of
college-age
youth,
the
number
of
bachelors
degree
recipients
increased
markedly.
The
number
of
science
and
engineering
bachelors
degree
recipients
also
increased,
although
not
as
notably.
However,
compared
with
nations
such
as
Japan,
South
Korea,
and
Germany,
the
United
1 8 H I G H L I G H T S
Mathematical sciences
Computer sciences
Physical sciences
Biological sciences
NATURAL
SCIENCES
AND
ENGINEERING
Business
ENGINEERING
History or political science
Education
Fine arts
SOCIAL
AND
BEHAVIORAL
SCIENCES
English
010
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90100
Percent
of
students
63
54
51
51
44
41
38
35
32
30
28
15
37
46
49
49
56
60
62
65
68
70
72
85
Moved to other group of majors Remained in same or like major
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
6
Percent
of
1987
first-year
undergraduate
students
in
4-year
institutions
who
stayed
in
or
switched
to
other
(declared
or
intended)
majors
by
1991,
by
field
of
major:
1991
NOTE:
Totals
may
not
add
to
100
percent
as
a
result
of
rounding.
SOURCE:
Seymour,
E.,
&
Hewitt,
N.M.
(1994).
Talking
about
leaving:
Factors
contributing
to
high
attrition
rates
among
science,
mathematics
&
engineering
undergraduate
majors.
Final
report
to
the
Alfred
P.
Sloan
Foundation
on
an
ethnographic
inquiry
at
seven
institutions.
Boulder,
CO:
University
of
Colorado.
1980 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
students
Graduate
degree
College
graduate
Two
years
or
less
of
college
or
vocational
High school diploma or less
1990
1980
1990
1980
1990
White
Black
Hispanic
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
5
Percent
of
high
school
sophomores
aspiring
to
various
levels
of
postsecondary
education,
by
race
or
ethnic
origin:
1980
and
1990
SOURCES:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
(1992).
High
school
and
beyond,
1980
to
1992.Washington,
DC:
Author;
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
(1992).
National
educational
longitudinal
study
of
1988:
Second
teacher
follow-up
study.
Washington,
DC:
Author.
The
slow
growth
in
science
and
engineering
degrees
conferred
in
the
United
States
may
be
partially
attributed
to
major
switching,
which
is
more
prevalent
for
science
and
engineering
majors
than
for
any
other
major.
(See
figure
16.)
While
28
percent
of
male
and
10
percent
of
female
high
school
seniors
planned
to
major
in
one
of
the
science
or
engineering
fields,
by
the
time
they
were
college
seniors,
only
11
percent
of
males
and
4
percent
of
females
actually
completed
the
major.
Another
explanation
for
the
slow
rate
of
growth
in
science
and
engineering
fields
may
be
the
lack
of
female
and
minority
participation.
Females
constituted
54
percent
of
all
bachelors
degree
recipients
in
1991,
yet
they
earned
only
44
percent
of
all
bachelors
degrees
in
science
and
engineering.
(See
figure
17.)
Between
1971
and
1991,
graduate
degrees
in
science
and
engineering
increased
at
a
faster
rate
than
at
the
bachelors
level.
By
1991,
doctorates
in
science
and
engineering
constituted
almost
two-thirds
of
all
doctorates
granted
in
the
United
States.
Universities
awarded
about
22,000,
or
39
percent,
more
science
and
engineering
masters
degrees
in
1991
than
in
1971
and
about
4,500,
or
23
percent,
more
science
and
engineering
doctoral
degrees.
(See
figure
18.)
T
H
E
L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G
C
U
RV
E
1
9
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
Number
of
bachelor's
degrees
All
bachelor's
degrees
Male
Female
Male
Female
Science
and
engineering
bachelor's
degrees
SOURCE:
National
Science
Foundation.
(1994).
Science
and
engineering
degrees:
1966-91
(NSF
94-305).
Arlington,
VA:
Author.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
7
Number
of
bachelor's
degrees
awarded,
by
sex
and
major
field
group:
1977
to
1991
1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
Associate
Bachelor's
Master's
Doctoral
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
8
Science
and
engineering
degrees
awarded,
by
degree
level:
1971
to
1991
NOTE:
Associate
degree
data
available
beginning
in
1983.
SOURCE:
National
Science
Foundation.
(1994).
Science
and
engineering
degrees:
1966-91
(NSF
94-305).
Arlington,
VA:
Author.
Number
of
degrees
2
0
H
I
G
H
L
I
G
H
T
S
Black
Hispanic
Native American
1977 1979 1981 1985 1987 1989 1990 1991 0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
Number
of
bachelor's
degrees
NOTE:
Persons
of
Hispanic
origin
may
be
of
any
race.
SOURCE:
National
Science
Foundation.
(1994).
Science
and
engineering
degrees,
by
race/ethnicity
of
recipients:
1977-91
(NSF
94-306).
Arlington,
VA:
Author.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
9
Science
and
engineering
bachelors
degrees
awarded,
by
selected
racial
and
ethnic
groups:
1977
to
1991
Engineering
Science
and
engineering
Natural
sciences,
total
Social
and
behavioral
sciences
Non-science
and
-engineering,
total
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Percent
2.5
5.9
16.6
17.0
16.7
15.4
22.8 24.8
29.1
36.5
1987 1992
F
I
G
U
R
E
2
0
Percent
of
full-time
instructional
faculty
who
are
female,
by
field:
Fall
1987
and
Fall
1992
SOURCE:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics.
(1994b).
[Special
tabulations
from
the
1993
national
study
of
postsecondary
faculty].
Unpublished
data.
Underrepresentation
is
also
evident
in
the
number
of
females
and
minorities
who
serve
as
science
and
engineering
faculty
members.
Between
1987
and
1992,
the
number
of
females
teaching
in
U.S.
postsecondary
institutions
increased
markedly.
Still,
females
account
for
only
about
15
percent
of
faculty
in
the
natural
sciences
and
only
about
6
percent
of
engineering
faculty
(see
figure
20);
they
make
up
about
one-third
of
all
higher
education
faculty.
Black
faculty
members
within
science
and
engineering
fields
are
similarly
underrepresented.
(See
figure
21.)
In
1992,
blacks
made
up
about
5
percent
of
all
higher
education
faculty,
but
they
made
up
only
3
percent
of
natural
sciences
faculty
and
less
than
3
percent
in
engineering.
1987
1992
Engineering
Natural sciences
Non-science and -engineering
Social and behavioral sciences
F
I
G
U
R
E
2
1
Percent
of
full-time
faculty
who
are
black,
by
field:
Fall
1987
and
Fall
1992
SOURCE:
National
Center
for
Education
Statistics
(1994).
[Special
tabulations
from
the
1993
national
study
of
postsecondary
faculty].
Unpublished
data.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Percent
0.5
1.2
3.6
4.8
2.8
3.3
5.2 5.3
clear
that
both
additional
data
and
new
types
of
data
are
needed
to
describe
reform
and
its
impact.
For
example:
u
While
available
indicators
reveal
encouraging
trends
toward
greater
participation
in
science
and
mathematics
by
elementary
school
students
and
increased
course
completion
and
achievement
by
high
school
students,
many
states
have
yet
to
match
their
requirements
to
recommended
standards.
What
are
the
obstacles,
and
what
incentives
might
be
needed?
u
Since
1978,
advances
in
performance
have
been
observable
for
students
of
all
ages
and
races;
yet
the
pace
is
slow
and
uneven.
Why
is
this
so?
What
practices
toward
achieving
full
equity
are
proving
most
effective?
Where
are
they
being
implemented?
Why
do
they
succeed
or
fail?
u
Why
do
science
and
mathematics
students
in
some
regions
of
the
United
States
consistently
perform
better
than
students
in
other
areas?
Is
there
solid
empirical
support
for
the
notion
that
demographic
factors
such
as
family
income
and
level
of
parental
education
have
a
profound
impact
on
student
motivation
and
performance?
Review
of
available
data
also
shows
that
critical
gaps
in
information
exist
with
regard
to
u
state-level
indicators
measuring
trends
in
student
achievement,
course
taking,
and
teaching
methods;
u
data
on
science
and
mathematics
course
taking
and
content
in
higher
education
institutions;
and
u the relationship between the planned and implemented classroom curricula.
Finally,
comprehensive
reports
from
bodies
such
as
the
National
Academy
of
Sciences
and
the
RAND
Corporation
suggest
additional
areas
that
indicator
systems
need
to
address,
including
adult
literacy,
resources
committed
by
governmental
and
nongovernmental
bodies,
and
teachers
knowledge.
NSF
is
taking
steps
to
address
these
concerns
and
fill
these
gaps
by
supporting
the
development
of
measures
of
adult
literacy
and
by
considering
studies
to
collect
information
on
resources
committed
to
science
and
mathematics
education.
However,
few
measures
of
teachers
knowledge
exist
in
surveys
of
teachers.
2 2 T O WA R D T H E F U T U R E
Measuring
systemic
reform
and
the
progress
of
this
evolving
practice
will
require
new
efforts
with
survey
techniques
techniques
that
measure
the
relationship
among
more
parts
of
the
educational
system,
the
sharing
of
resources,
and
the
publics
understanding
of
science
and
mathematics
education
in
the
United
States.
n
T H E L E A R N I N G C U RV E 2 3
NATIONAL
SCIENCE
FOUNDATION
ARLINGTON,
VA
22230
______________
OFFICIAL
BUSINESS
PENALTY
FOR
PRIVATE
USE
$300
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