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The American educational system has long been under stress at all levels, but movement toward reform -- especially reform of science education -- is gaining momentum. In response to this movement, the National Science Foundation recently has reaffirmed the significance of science education along with research as the agency’s priorities. ^1,2,3 NSF’s education programs operate within the framework of government-wide emphasis on advancing the highest-quality education and training for all Americans, as recently expressed by the National Science and Technology Council.^4,5

The Geoscience Education Working Group (GEWG) was convened in response to two conclusions drawn by the Directorate for Geosciences (GEO) and the Advisory Committee for Geosciences (AC/GEO). First, the geosciences have much to offer in the daunting task of science education reform. Second, GEO has the responsibility to engage the geoscience community in this process. This change in perspective parallels similar reassessments that are reaffirming the significance of both research and education on university campuses.⁶ Before turning to recommendations about ways that GEO can effectively and efficiently do this, we briefly review some of the underlying problems.

Problems at the various education levels from K-12 through postgraduate studies differ. They are outlined separately below, but some common threads run through them. First, at each level the fundamental question, "What are we educating students for?", needs to be asked explicitly, but often it is not. Second, the modern view of the importance of hands-on experience and constructivist learning applies at all education levels.⁷

Postdoctoral appointments can be a unique opportunity for a first-rate scientist who recently earned a Ph.D. to solidify research skills, build a track record, establish peer relationships, and acquire professional self-confidence. On the other hand, more Ph.D. students prepare themselves for an academic career than can be supported by the job market. As a result, postdoctoral appointments often serve as "holding patterns" for young scientists unable to find jobs as professors.

Many recent Ph.D. recipients are narrowly trained in the same specialties as their advisors, and they remain so as postdocs. Thus, when they enter the labor force, they compete directly with their former mentors for NSF funds. Given the overwhelming focus on research and grant-getting, the direction for a postdoc intending an academic career tends to be narrowly focused research. The postdoctoral appointment does little to prepare them for many aspects of scholarly life, including teaching.

The traditional mode of operation of NSF disciplinary programs has been to fund graduate students as a basic part of grants to principal investigators (PIs) for specific research projects. The tacit assumption is that the student will conduct research under the supervision of the PI and pursue an academic career like that of the advisor. There is no shortage of "best and brightest" graduate students with these characteristics, and there is no personnel shortage for world-class academic researchers. On the contrary, there is a problem of overproduction of specialized doctoral scientists, few of whom have received substantive training in the educational practices they will need in future academic positions.⁸

It is now widely recognized that a new system of graduate education is needed to prepare students for broad competence and flexibility in the workplace. There are calls for replacing some of the current support for graduate research assistantships with internships and fellowships intended to extend students’ experience outside of funded research projects, and especially in work settings. A solid geoscience education can be excellent preparation for "non-traditional" career paths in fields such as law, business, and education.

There has been much discussion about the need for improvement of undergraduate education in general and in the geosciences in particular, as well as a recognition of the difficult path to reform. Formidable institutional problems remain, such as how to educate (and evaluate) very large classes, a shortage of up-to-date facilities and technologies, and faculty reward systems that often fail to emphasis educational excellence.

Recognition also is growing of the need for new pedagogies and related curricula and instructional tools, along with training of faculty in their use. Too often the potential benefits of geoscience education at the undergraduate level go unrealized, as occurs in other areas of science.⁹ The problem is complex because of the diversity of the undergraduate population. If one asks what an undergraduate education in geoscience is for, there is not one answer.

The only path through undergraduate education with which GEO has traditionally had any real (though limited) concern is that of the student who is headed for a geoscience program at the graduate level. But this is a small fraction of the undergraduate population. All undergraduates, and ultimately the public at large, would benefit from improved geoscience education.¹⁰

Besides the range of careers that would benefit from a geoscience education, there is the important, if intangible, goal of training undergraduates (as at all levels) in "scientific habits of the mind," "scientific practice," and "reasoning from evidence." These qualities generally are developed through some form of "hands-on," discovery-based, or inquiry-based learning across a broad curricular front.¹¹

Finally, it is well-recognized that scientific literacy, interest, curiosity, and internalization of the process of discovery and analysis begins in elementary school, and that too often that is short circuited by inadequate teacher preparation. Students training for careers in pre-college education need help at the undergraduate level in understanding the process of science and becoming scientifically self-confident. GEO’s role in these fundamental infrastructural and pipeline issues deserves careful consideration.

GEO’s traditional "educational" focus has been on training graduate students for an academic career, with some attention paid to those undergraduates who intend to follow this career path. Although GEO has not previously placed emphasis on K-12 education, the quality of students entering college -- their knowledge base, their ability to solve problems and present results, their intellectual self-confidence, and their open-yet-skeptical habits of mind -- are formed during their progression from Grades K-12.

Colleges and universities can play a fundamental role in bringing about widespread reform at the K-12 level.¹² Important elements are development of (1) closer relationships between education schools and science programs, (2) partnerships with local school systems, and (3) hands-on science education programs. Many universities are making advances in all three areas. Some of these are member universities of GEO-sponsored consortia and involve geosciences content. A critical element of GEO’s future planning with respect to improving geoscience education is determining appropriate ways through which GEO can use its resources, particularly its contacts with a substantial university network, to nurture and advance these initiatives.

Much attention has been given to the report on Science and Engineering Indicators - 1996, which noted the American public’s low level of understanding of the facts and concepts of science, despite the pervasive use of the products of science.¹³ Ironically, the same report disclosed widespread public interest in science. Part of GEO’s responsibility is to further public understanding of the content of geoscience and the process of science in general.

In the long run, public understanding of science in general and active processes of nature in particular -- and ultimately public support of the scientific enterprise -- will depend on the quality of public education. This is why geoscience education, both in school and out of school, deserves GEO’s attention. The geosciences have a natural advantage in the arena of discovery-based learning, and it is in this community’s interest for geoscientists to be in the vanguard of the educational reform movement.

Although much of the focus of education is on students, the need also exists for providing support for teachers. This is especially true in colleges and universities, where faculty members serve in critical capacities as both researchers and educators. Faculty need assistance to transfer their professional expertise to the K-12 classroom, to help train present and future teachers, and to provide continuing education for the community at large. We believe it is essential that GEO does all it can to foster a significant change in the prevailing university culture. Rather than viewing educational activities as a dilution of focused research efforts, we should consider education to be an investment of time, energy, and resources that adds value to the research mission through greater application, understanding, and appreciation of science by a wider audience.

"Changing the culture" is a formidable long-term challenge that will depend on the actions of many individuals. Faculty need help in connecting with existing educational programs that work. Such programs involve "best teaching practice," student-centered learning, discovery and inquiry, new pedagogies, research on how students really learn, and evaluation and dissemination of educational activities and materials.

It is important to recognize that the virtual university will be a rapidly growing phenomenon in the near term, and the Worldwide Web will facilitate new forms of communication and interaction.¹⁴ It will become increasingly possible to deliver content-rich geoscience courses, based in a real-world research context, involving high-quality real time or archive data, and aimed at promoting analytical reasoning and critical thinking skills. A prototype is the Geographer’s Craft and Virtual Geography Department project at the University of Texas at Austin.¹⁵

A valuable component of a small grants program could be the support of partnerships that can initiate the development of innovative Web-based projects in the geosciences. Many of these projects would have the potential for later full-scale support from EHR or other organizations. To maintain high quality, materials posted on the Web will need to be mindful of the importance of appropriate indexing, abstracting, and hyperlinking of materials. Long-term maintenance of Web sites also will be needed, as will easy access so that students and faculty will readily be able to find useful materials.

The imagination of the public has been captured by movies such as Twister, Dante’s Peak, and Jurassic Park, by television such as the Nova series and National Geographic specials, and by videos, for example those on The Weather Channel. This popular interest stems from the inherent fascination that people have with the power and fury of nature and its potential impact on our lives. The challenge for geoscientists is to build unique educational opportunities that take advantage of this public interest without compromising the integrity of the science. Given the traditional lead of the geosciences in scientific telecommunications, for example space sciences and meteorology, we should explore the integration of virtually instant information exchange into our national science education efforts. The geosciences are ideally situated to aid reform in science education through the use of new communications technologies that facilitate more project-based learning opportunities for all ages.

GEO major goals with respect to education are consonant with a recent report from the Office of Technology Assessment titled Teachers and Technology: Making the Connection.¹⁶ That report outlines five strategies:

• Create Internet tools that are intuitive, that are relevant to "real" life, and that offer an engaging means of delivering rich material.
• Make this new technology accessible to an ever wider community of practitioners and education curriculum developers, guiding and supporting quality curriculum development.
• Use the technology to promote project-based experimentation, field measurements, and data interpretation.
• Create and support an environment wherein students and teachers can build on the powerful communication aspects of the Internet for the development and support of vertical collaborative communities.
• Develop new models for training the rapidly growing community of researchers and practitioners in technology, educational reform, and content issues.

Technology that can drive educational reform is evolving rapidly, and it is crucial that GEO help the scientific community to position itself at the cutting edge. A government initiative to develop the "Next Generation Internet" has been announced. President Clinton has proposed that every school and library in the U.S. be provided with free access to basic Internet services. The implications for educational innovation are clear; the geoscience community needs to fully embrace the opportunities.

NSF has made initial awards in the new Collaborative Research in Learning Technologies (CRLT) program aimed at frontier research on integration of technology with learning at all educational levels. CRLT supports basic research by multi-disciplinary teams employing state-of-the art applications of artificial intelligence, telecommunications, and other technological tools. In FY 1997, CRLT will become part of a broader effort on Learning and Intelligent Systems (LIS). GEO can be instrumental in helping the geoscience community take full advantage of these initiatives.

Reform of science education must be predicated on research on learning and teaching materials and practices that are developed from that research. The geosciences currently have a much weaker research base than a number of other fields, such as physics. Several physics education research groups have been established in universities that grant discipline-based Ph.D.s. The National Science Education Standards places geoscience on a par with the physical and life sciences. ¹⁷ This development provides opportunities for a major educational breakthrough, but it also offers challenges:

• If the geoscience community does not respond with excellent materials and training, the geoscience standards will be ignored. This will weaken the implementation of the standards as a whole, because the Earth and Space Sciences component is not a modular block but rather a critical component of an integrated science education curriculum.
• There will be a huge need for teachers who are well trained in the geosciences to implement that component of the standards, but there are very few education schools that provide substantive geoscience training. This contrasts with the physical and life sciences, where there are significant numbers of science educators.
• Uncertainty exists regarding which practices work best in the classroom to promote better learning about the geosciences. We do not have a sound pedagogical understanding of how students learn about the geosciences effectively at any level. As a result, we rely primarily on anecdotal information.
• Almost all elementary school teachers and most middle and high school teachers need an integrated "geoscience" perspective, because they must cover all aspects of the Earth.

A program of research on geoscience education is needed to address these challenges. Such a program constitutes a formidable challenge in its own right, because such research is more demanding in many ways than is research about the natural world.

The nature of graduate education is changing as the social contract between science and society changes. A conversation involving leading members of the geoscience community is needed to explore the implications of these changes.

A high-level conference focusing on the future of graduate education in the geosciences would include deans, center and program directors, and department heads. If successful, such a conference could take place every two or three years. Precedence for such a conference may be found in the May 1995 Physics Department Chairs Conference [http://www.aps.org]. Another good model is the biannual Meeting of the Heads and Chairs of Atmospheric Science Programs. A similar gathering of geoscience administrators could produce a report to provide a foundation for future action on this topic.

Students do not all arrive at the kindergarten door with equal experiences, opportunities, and aspirations. Social and economic realities begin their impact long before that time. By society limiting, even inadvertently, access to the full range of opportunities for science learning, many students fail to gain the skills necessary to assess the validity of evidence or the logic of arguments, and they frequently are misinformed about the nature of science endeavors. Our nation is producing a generation of students who cannot take full advantage of the benefits of science. This problem is especially severe for many minority students, which reduces their pursuit of scientific careers.

Greater exposure of minority students to what geoscientists do and to the possible careers in geosciences is critical to increasing the representation of minorities in the geosciences. This may be most appropriately done at the primary, secondary, and undergraduate levels, but it should also carry over into graduate and postgraduate educational settings.

Enhanced recruiting efforts need to begin at an early age and continue on through to college. Efforts need to be aimed at retention. There has to be continuity, information flow, and links among programs at various levels so that talented students continue in a pipeline that will lead them to careers in the geosciences. To some extent, a competition exists among disciplines for talented members of underrepresented groups, and if the geosciences do not do a better job of attracting and retaining a significant number of capable and interested individuals, they likely will be lured away by well organized programs in fields such as the biomedical sciences. At the undergraduate level, for example, capable students who begin a course of study in the geosciences at the freshman and sophomore levels can be given the opportunity to work as interns; during their junior and senior years they can gain experience as a members of a research team.

The infrastructure problems and culture of minority institutions also need to be addressed. For example, undergraduates who do not have ready access to the Internet and Worldwide Web do not have full access to the real world of "doing science." Well planned outreach and networking activities are essential. GEO should continue to support activities that introduce students to the broader world and help them to establish a network of contacts. Support for programs such as the 1995 Hampton Diversity Conference and the Hampton-ASLO Minorities in Aquatic Sciences Mentoring and Meeting Participation Program for Students is vital.

The majority of African Americans who receive a doctoral degree received their undergraduate degree from a Historically Black College or University. However, no state-of-the-art, viable undergraduate geosciences programs exist at any of the 117 historically black institutions of higher education. This situation must be remedied if the number of African Americans pursuing careers in the geosciences is to increase.

One of the most critical elements of career development is the availability of role models. Though the situation for women has improved, there are few role models for minority students at many institutions. GEO should encourage professional societies to develop programs to help graduate students attend their meetings, because the professional society meetings enable female and minority students to interact with many more female and minority scientists than they normally would encounter at their home institutions. The participation of women and minority students should be encouraged by providing travel awards for graduate and postdoctoral students.

The GEWG believes that it is important for GEO to communicate directly with many audiences about the most exciting things going on in geoscience education, as well as in geoscience research. GEO should give serious consideration to determining how best to do this. Four possible avenues are:

An annual workshop series featuring the best examples of projects that integrate geoscience research and education could be established. These workshops would become a vehicle for researchers and educators to meet and develop connections among themselves. Complementing the workshops could be a high-quality workshop report series and the posting of examples on the Worldwide Web, making use of multimedia whenever possible. Such products would be useful to education professionals and public audiences.

Public access to the Worldwide Web is increasing at a very rapid pace. The addition of pages focusing on geoscience education to GEO’s Web Site could provide an organic, informative, useful, and exciting means of sharing the results of the best geoscience education projects and future opportunities. Education pages on the GEO Web Site and links to sites elsewhere would constitute a valuable resource for teachers, students, scientists, and the general public.

GEO should consider establishing a special colloquium series to encourage geoscience departments to conduct at least one education colloquium each year. These colloquia would build an infrastructure for education research with specific application to the geosciences and encourage acceptance of education as an important responsibility for geoscientists.

The whole world is the laboratory for geoscientists, who travel to the most interesting places on Earth to make observations in order to understand how the Earth system functions. Where we cannot go, we have clever tools to help us probe and sample remotely. The images associated with both direct and remote observation make for fascinating video presentations, which capture the imagination of the public. There is much potential benefit to the science from partnerships among GEO, video companies, television stations, and corporate sponsors to increase the output of high-quality geoscience-related videos.

Changes also are needed at the masters level, which increasingly needs to be considered as the "professional degree" for many students, because about three-quarters of all M.S. recipients will be going into non-academic jobs. Increasingly, industry will require masters-level professional training.¹⁰

New mechanisms for graduate and postdoctoral support might include the following:

Awards made to individuals would encourage innovative independent projects. Fellowships could involve novel cross-disciplinary research, mentoring, pedagogical development, or educational technologies as well as industrial or international connections. For those seeking new approaches to the integration of research and education, mentorship by both a scientist and an educator would be appropriate. Cost-sharing should be expected from the university.

Traineeships would be made to individuals or departments and would support innovative interdisciplinary or dual professional degree programs. The aim would be production of a cadre of exceptionally competent and versatile professionals, who are intellectually well grounded in geoscience research. Programs for individuals could involve multiple institutions. Traineeships could involve innovative educational components, such as new pedagogies or the use of technology in education. A traineeship program would be consistent with the recommendations of the National Science Board Task Force on Graduate and Postdoctoral Education.

GEO might play a useful role in developing prototypes of masters fellowships programs that produce technically competent and adaptable professionals. One type of program could follow the REU-Site model, where groups of students work in teams that expand and diversify their knowledge and skills through the conduct of multidisciplinary research activities in real-world settings.

Certain programs could explicitly involve a dual-career framework, in which students could combine geoscience training with applications in areas such as law, economics, planning, journalism, or international affairs. Other kinds of programs could support students pursuing masters degrees in preparation for teaching at the pre-college level. Fellowships should be available to experienced teachers wishing to increase their geoscience expertise.

At the same time that geoscience Ph.D. recipients find it harder to fill traditional academic positions , there is a huge and growing need for educators with strong knowledge of the geosciences, both in the K-12 teaching arena and in the conduct of geoscience education research. GEO should provide a path for those who want to make the transition by providing Retooling for Education Fellowships to recent Ph.D. and M.S. recipients. A number of these fellowships might also be made available to more senior scientists who wish to shift fields but need some additional resources in order to do so.

These fellowships would provide limited support to the recipient while she/he carries out a predetermined program to achieve the goal, whether it be teacher certification (K-12) or a program of geoscience education research. Partnerships should be developed with EHR and the National Science Teachers Association (for the K-12 component) to ensure timely and accurate information that proposers could use in developing their plan.

RTGs integrate research and education in a multidisciplinary context. GEO should consider establishing its own RTG program or participating in a cross-directorate effort within NSF that follows the RTG model established by the NSF Directorate for Biological Sciences. Awards would be made to groups formed from multiple disciplinary organizations and would be focused on significant multidisciplinary problems. The central objective would be broad training of students in an excellent research environment. RTGs could include undergraduates, graduate students, and postdocs. Award budgets would involve a broad range of activities supporting student participation, but the expected outcome of the projects would be advances in significant problems in the geosciences. An RTG program would be a logical point of entry for GEO into efforts now underway to develop a coherent NSF-wide strategy for promoting environment and global change education. [Editor’s Note: Starting in FY 1998, GEO will participate in the NSF-wide Integrated Graduate Education Research Training (IGERT) competition, which uses the RTG model.]

Over the last year, EHR has conducted a major review of undergraduate education. The results of that review are reported in Shaping the Future: New Expectations for Undergraduate Education in Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Technology.¹⁸ There are important recommendations within this report that will have an impact on undergraduate education into the next century. Perhaps the most significant recommendation is one that calls for all undergraduate students to have the opportunity to learn science in relevant contexts through direct inquiry. A related recommendation calls for all students to be empowered through the development of life-long learning skills. A parallel study by the National Academy of Sciences reached consonant conclusions.¹⁹ GEO can advance the goals articulated in these reports in a number of specific ways:

Fieldwork is a defining aspect of the geosciences. It therefore needs to assume a central role in undergraduate geoscience education. One of the best vehicles for providing undergraduate students with field opportunities is the Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) program. Anecdotal evidence indicates that the REU program has been notably successful in providing hands-on experience and cooperative learning – both in the field and also in the laboratory. It has attracted numerous young people to the geosciences, including many from underrepresented groups, and has also proven to be an important cornerstone for many others who have gone into other professional fields. Many of the skills that students acquire through research experience are useful during the rest of their lives, even if they do not pursue careers as researchers. The REU program is of clear value to the goal of producing a geoscientifically literate populace, and it has been of value in encouraging the integration of research and education at undergraduate institutions.

Through REU awards or similar vehicles, students may simultaneously benefit from interactions with colleagues and scientists at a distance through evolving technology while "doing" science locally as individuals or in small groups.

Some facilities supported by GEO can be used for educational purposes more extensively than has been done in the past.

To provide additional support for facilities while expanding their use for educational purposes would be a "win-win" situation. Students would have the opportunity to gain hands-on research experience, often with state-of-the art hardware, while the facilities would obtain additional funding to sustain educational and other activities. Additionally, some students who use the facilities and then assume positions in industry likely would want to continue making use of the facility, thereby providing an additional source of revenue through user fees.

Much more needs to be done to take advantage of new technologies when presenting the geosciences to students. In many respects, the geosciences are the most visual of all disciplines. They also may be among the least amenable to the traditional lecture format of teaching. The need to display and manipulate large databases is an important characteristic of the geosciences that should be an integral part of undergraduate education. Some excellent computer-based educational materials are becoming available. NSF will do a great service to undergraduates by continuing to develop and make use of these materials, thereby encouraging both science and computer literacy.

The relative lack of research facilities and opportunities at many predominantly undergraduate institutions, particularly the smaller state institutions that teach the majority of college students, limits opportunities to integrate research and education. A model for change might be a "small grants for undergraduate institutions" program, which would allow faculty at undergraduate institutions to apply for modest awards that could be used to purchase small equipment, provide student stipends, finance travel to field or lab sites, or pay laboratory user fees. Alternatively, such awards could facilitate collaboration with colleagues at research universities. Such collaborations could be an effective means for overcoming the isolation often experienced by faculty at small undergraduate colleges. Direct inclusion of undergraduate students in such activities is a natural complement to faculty efforts, but it should not be required. Such a program might be carried out through the Research in Undergraduate Institutions (RUI) program, including the Research Opportunities Awards (ROA) component. The challenge for GEO would be to ensure rigorous review while avoiding the administrative burden of numerous small grants.

While faculty at predominantly undergraduate institutions often need special help with maintaining active research programs, it must be recognized that some such institutions have developed an ongoing commitment to high-quality geoscience education, application of advances in our understanding of how students learn, and outstanding new approaches to educating not only geoscience majors but the general citizenry. Faculty at research universities stand to benefit from this expertise, and it is important that GEO foster collaborations with undergraduate institutions that are mutually beneficial.

Unless teaching is elevated and rewarded at the same level as research within the universities, education will remain a distant priority for tenured faculty. The present NSF-wide CAREER program, which is directed toward faculty in the first years of their academic appointments, is intended to address this problem. An alternative program worthy of GEO’s consideration would be directed toward tenured faculty, many of whom have the interest and job security to undertake innovative educational activities. Annual "Distinguished Educator Awards in Geosciences" would convey to geoscientists and to academic organizations the importance of integrating of research and education at all levels. Funds provided through such awards would also enable enhanced efforts of experienced researcher-educators.

The pre-college years mark the beginning -- and for many students, the end -- of interest in science. The K-6 years are especially important. The elementary and middle school experience will largely determine whether a child grows up feeling empowered to participate in an increasingly technological environment. The primary goal of education must be to engage students in the thoughtful and creative exploration of science as a means of gaining knowledge, skills, and intellectual self-confidence they will use throughout their lives. Because it is of such fundamental importance, the GEWG believes that GEO should make pre-college education one of its highest priorities. The following statement by one of the GEWG members, Bob Ryan, expresses the collective view of the group:

In the view of the GEWG, GEO can contribute substantively in three ways: by supporting the development of strong education programs that will produce teachers competent in the geosciences, by supporting outreach by geoscientists to teachers, and by providing training in education for geoscientists.

Although the geosciences have long been a component of pre-college curricula, they almost universally have been overshadowed by the life and physical sciences. At the elementary level, teachers have traditionally been trained in the humanities, not in the sciences. Thus, the instructional implications of the new National Science Education Standards are enormous. A large cadre of teachers well-trained in both geosciences content and pedagogy will be needed. For geoscience majors, this represents an employment opportunity; for the education community, this is an opportunity to add teachers well-trained in the geosciences.

At present, most undergraduates interested in careers in both the geosciences and in teaching must choose between a geoscience major and an education major. Further, large introductory courses commonly represent the only training in science offered to prospective teachers, especially those aiming for elementary or middle school. Large lectures model precisely the wrong approach to geoscience education and do little to excite a student, especially one who harbors some fear of science. In light of the new National Science Education Standards, teachers must better educate themselves in order to educate their students effectively.

The program of research on education recommended in an earlier section could respond to these problems. High-quality interdisciplinary programs of this type could develop new paradigms for effective geoscience education, while engaging a cadre of students who could deliver them to pre-college classrooms. The GEWG reiterates its view that GEO sponsorship of such a program would pay high dividends, both through the institutions supported and the models they would establish for others.

The GEWG recommends that GEO exercise leadership, make careful investments, and establish partnerships that provide initial stimuli to encourage individual geoscience researchers to reach out to K-12 teachers as part of their research programs. Efforts would ideally involve the same teacher(s) over a period of years, have a significant field experience component, and be structured not only to build the geoscience skills of teachers in a particular area but also to provide opportunities for the teachers to translate their experiences to activities for use in their classrooms. The initial goal would be the establishment and nurturing of many small efforts nationwide in which individual researchers work with K-12 teachers. In the long run, these "grass-roots" efforts will do much good for K-12 education and change the "culture" of the geosciences with regard to the relationship between university researchers and K-12 teachers. A few of these efforts undoubtedly would grow into larger sets of activities, many of which would attract support from EHR and other sources. Through these partnerships, teachers would become better equipped to implement the National Science Education Standards. The likely vehicle for supporting such partnerships seems to be the "Small Grants to Facilitate Outreach" program recommended above.

"Hands-on, minds-on" science is best at all levels. Even as adults, we need practical experiences for conceptual development. Internships and joint projects are imperative for this, but they could also be further developed to include classroom teachers. Projects such as Teachers at Sea and Science in the Stratosphere have teachers working with scientists. These kinds of programs provide eye-opening experiences of how science is really being done. Teachers reenter their classrooms with new insights and excitement about science after participating in them.

We also recommend that GEO explore mechanisms for supporting, through the societies, workshops based on current geoscience curriculum projects that could be conducted by geoscientists in local areas or at educational conventions such as NSTA. Through their members, consortia such as IRIS, with appropriate training and preparation, could conduct workshops for teachers in their local areas. Workshops could cover important topics such as plate tectonics, the global climate system, and ocean chemistry. These workshops would include connections to current data, fundamental science principles, and technology. Teachers would also receive curriculum and support materials.

If geoscientists are to become meaningfully involved in science education reform at the pre-college level -- and also at other levels -- they must have an understanding of the issues commensurate with their desired scope of involvement. Geoscientists need training in pedagogical terminology, best practices, and evaluation so that they can better communicate with education partners. There are organizations that can provide excellent training. A notable example is the National Association of Geoscience Teachers, which has been running workshops on effective and innovative teaching for faculty and graduate students at national scientific society meetings.

Workshops to educate geoscientists about education can take a number of different forms. For those seeking basic guidance, one-day or half-day workshops (possibly held in connection with scientific society meetings) may be appropriate for conveying "how to" advice. This kind of information also can be disseminated through publications and/or Web sites. For those interested in more significant levels of involvement, two- to three-day workshops targeted at specific topics, such as teacher workshops or curriculum development, would be of great value. Several workshops could be held regionally each year. Finally, those seeking in-depth involvement might participate in week-long institutes that prepare geoscientists to play proactive roles in systemic reform efforts involving entire school districts or larger entities. These extended workshops would be stand-alone meetings drawing participants from across the country to a site where an exemplary reform effort can be showcased.

One possible vehicle for implementing many activities aimed at improving pre-college geoscience education emphasizes partnerships at the grass-roots level.

State-based alliances could be a valuable mechanism for implementing the National Science Education Standards ¹⁷. Models are provided by the Network of Geographic Alliances, sponsored by the National Geographic Society, and the Teacher-Scientist Alliance Institute, sponsored by the American Physics Society. In keeping with the theme of integrating research and education, the alliances should be anchored in academic geoscience programs at the major research universities. They should be led by individuals who are competent in the pedagogy of the geosciences, who have experience in working with pre-college teachers, and who are committed to the program over the long term.

The state-based alliance approach recognizes that K-12 education in the U.S. is inherently a state and local function that differs considerably from state to state. The alliance approach can be structured to address the current lack of geoscience educators on the faculties of colleges of education. The alliances can be provided with block funding (perhaps on a matching basis with the state) and be charged with developing programs that bring together geoscience researchers, teachers, and community organizations to implement the science education standards in their states. The alliances could play a role in awarding small supplements to GEO-funded researchers desiring to work with teachers. They should involve all individuals and groups interested in geoscience education within the state, including instructors of the lower division (freshman and sophomore) classes at two- and four-year institutions.

Establishing a network of alliances would be an ambitious undertaking, but it would not have to be done instantaneously. Indeed, it should start small, do things right, and grow. It would require long-term support, just as the entire process of improving geoscience education requires a long-term commitment.

One significant way in which students can learn about the geosciences is to collect data that is used in geoscience research. Data collected by students can contribute to the research effort, often providing observations over a much larger geographic area than would otherwise be feasible.²⁰ Such programs therefore make for good science and good education. Two examples of successful geoscience research programs that effectively make teachers and students members of research teams are The Princeton Earth Physics Project and Weather Underground. Both of these programs are supported by EHR but make use of GEO-funded facilities.

Informal science education is an excellent vehicle for conveying the sense of wonder embodied in science and for exciting people of all ages with the prospect that they can learn more about what they see in museums and other such settings. Moreover, the geosciences are blessed with an abundance of beautiful images that can stimulate the public imagination and interest. To this end, GEO should encourage the creation of exhibit projects that feature geoscience themes. To do so will require several actions. GEO will have to build a partnership with the EHR Informal Science Education Program. GEO will also have to collect information on development of good informal science projects and disseminate that information to researchers and educators.

GEO can invest seed money to allow scientists to create pilot museum projects that could help launch larger and more ambitious efforts. An example of this is the Electric Space project, a 750-square foot pilot project jointly funded by GEO and the NASA Space Physics Division. The experience gained from that project led to a much larger effort funded by the Informal Science Education Program. A new 3,800-square foot exhibit about the solar-terrestrial space environment (featuring beautiful images of the Sun and aurora, plus many hands-on interactive displays) will be seen by an estimated 2 million to 3 million people during its three-year tour.

Awards could take a variety of forms, including planning grants and prototype development. Workshops could also be sponsored to enable interested geoscientists to learn from the experience of their peers and from those with expertise in organizing public exhibits.

EHR’s Informal Science Education Program has established a new mechanism in which supplements to existing awards would be made competitively to facilitate the wide dissemination of scientific research results. It will be important for GEO to advertise this opportunity widely in the community.

More generally, it is important that GEO engages the professional societies in a program to take the exciting output of geoscience research to the public by establishing alliances with science educators and institutions such as museums, aquariums, science centers, and the media. The program ideally would involve communication with Parent Teacher Associations, school boards, and other broadly based groups to make them aware of innovative programs and materials that are being developed.

Geoscientists traditionally have spent most of their time communicating with other scientists in language that only scientists understand. It is time for geoscientists to communicate the significance of their work to a broader audience. Such an effort ultimately will pay substantial dividends in building support for their work by their ultimate patrons -- the public.

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