Title : IAIOES05 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON HIGH LATITUDE PROCESSES Type : IAI Newsletter NSF Org: GEO Date : August 8, 1995 File : iaioes05 THE INTER-AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON HIGH LATITUDE PROCESSES December 15-17, 1993 Buenos Aires, Argentina TABLE OF CONTENTS =46OREWORD 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 I. BACKGROUND 9 1. Effects of Ozone Changes 9 = =09 2. Cryospheric Processes 10 =09 II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE 13 1. Sea Ice 2. Snow Cover 13, 15 3. Glaciology 4. Ozone Depletion 16, 17 =09 =09 III. SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND PRIORITIES 18 1. Ozone and UV-B Radiation 18 =09 a. Ozone Depletion and Atmospheric Processes 19 b. Biological Impacts of UV-B Radiation 21 2. Present and Past Cryospheric Processes 22=09 3. Climatology and Atmospheric Processes 26 a. High Atmosphere Processes 27 4. Mesospheric Processes and Global Change 30 IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 31 1. UV-B and Human Sciences 31 2. Sea Ice 32 3. Snow Cover 32 4. Atmospheric Processes 32 V. APPROACH 34 =09 1. Cryosphere 34 =09 2. Glaciology 35 3. Ozone Depletion and UV-B Radiation Effects 36 =09 a. The IAI Role 36 b. Data Handling and Sharing 38 VI. RELATED PROGRAMS 39 =09 =09 VII. REFERENCES 41 APPENDIX 1: IAI Initial Scientific Themes 43=09 APPENDIX 2: Acronyms 44 APPENDIX 3: Workshop Participants 45 =46OREWORD A symposium and workshop on High Latitude Processes was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina on December 15- 17, 1993, convened by the Inter-American Institute For Global Change Research (IAI), the Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa (SECYT), and the Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global (CNCG) of Argentina. More than 70 scientists from eight countries in the region met to obtain a representative of ongoing projects and to develop a science agenda for IAI. The first two days consisted of 33 scientific presentations and a conference by Dr. Rumen Bojkov from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) on "Ozone Changes and the Southern Cone Countries Project for Ozone and UV-B Monitoring and Research," and a roundtable discussion on "Some Climatic Tendencies in High and Mid-Latitudes in South America" as a closure. The Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research was created in May of 1992 to address the need for advanced study of regionally significant issues pertaining to global change. The IAI is designed to evolve into a network of research facilities throughout the Americas which will augment research capabilities and promote education and training within the scientific fields most important to current and future global change research. At this writing, 16 nations have signed the agreement establishing the Institute, recognizing that no one nation can adequately study the complex global environmental mechanisms on this planet. The signatory nations agree that a greater understanding of these mechanisms may be achieved by a regional and international pooling of information. The IAI agreement notes the importance of an evolving scientific agenda that reflects an appropriate balance among the biogeographical areas of scientific importance. It also stresses the need to address in an integral fashion the physical, economic, and social issues relating to global change. Seven broadly defined research topics have been identified as priorities for special focus. To identify the most pressing scientific questions and socio-economic issues within those seven priority topics, a group of physical and social scientists met in Silver Spring, Maryland, in the United States on March 5-6, 1992. The resulting document, the Report of the Meeting of Scientific Experts, provided the basis for the series of seven workshops on scientific program development, intended to advance the science agenda of the IAI. =09 The symposium and workshop on High Latitude Processes was the second in the series of workshops. The first IAI workshop was held in Montevideo, Uruguay, August 2-6, 1993, on the subject The Comparative Studies of Oceanic, Coastal, and Estuarine Processes in the Temperate Zones."The other five subjects for workshops are Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Processes (S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, Brazil), Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical Americas (Panam=E1 City, Panam=E1), ENSO and Interannual Climate Variability (Lima, Per=FA), The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems (Durham, N.C., USA), and The Study of the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity (Guadalajara, M=E9xico). This report on High Latitude Processes discusses possible plans for scientific strategies and suggests the infrastructure that might be necessary to undertake further investigations. It proposes improvements in regional communications systems and identifies priorities in further education and training. It is only a proposed guide to action. The next step, as stated in the science plan, is to develop an implementation plan, a definite program for the topic. Sincere thanks must be extended to those who helped in organizing the workshop and preparing the report. Special acknowledgment must be give to the local organizing committee for conducting the workshop in Buenos Aires. The committee and its staff includes the following: Carlos Ere=F1o, Ricardo Poy, Elvira Gentile, and Laura Tarallo (Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval); Eduardo Ban=FAs, Alejandro Norverto, and Danila Durando (Secretaria de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa); Claudio Parica, Celia Izquierdo, and Ana Mar=EDa Retsin (Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino) and Fernando Requena (Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional). Participating institutions, all from Argentina: Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa, Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global, Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval, Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional, Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino, Coordinaci=F3n Ecol=F3gica Area Metropolitana Sociedad del Estado (CEAMSE), Ministerio de Economia, and Municipalidad de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. =09 Additionally, I would like to express my most sincere thanks to Dr. Robert Corell (National Science Foundation), Dr. Michael Hall, James Buizer, Lisa Farrow and Claudia Nierenberg (NOAA/OGP) for their constant enthusiasm and support during the development of this workshop. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the commitment, dedication and enthusiasm of my staff members, Raquel Gomes, Marcella Ohira and D=E9lia Levandoski, without whose support in preparing this report would have been impossible to accomplish. Rub=E9n Lara Lara IAI Executive Scientist =09 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY For a representative sample of the scientific projects underway in the high latitudes of the Americas, more than 70 scientists from eight countries met in Buenos Aires in a symposium and workshop convened by IAI, the Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa (SECYT) and the Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global (CNCG) of Argentina. Over two days they heard 33 scientific presentations, a conference by Dr. Rumen Bojkov of the World Meteorological Organization on "Ozone Changes and the Southern Cone Countries Project for Ozone and UV-B Monitoring and Research," and a round table discussion on "Some Climatic Tendencies in High and Mid-Latitudes in South America." In a workshop that followed the symposium, the scientists first discussed the importance of inserting the social sciences into the IAI agenda, particularly to facilitate communication between scientists studying high latitude processes and the policy makers and general public. They reviewed the main international organizations currently conducting scientific programs related to global change in high latitudes, such as the Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW), the World Climate Program (WCP), and the International Geosphere and Biosphere Program (IGBP). Four working groups were then formed for separate meetings on the following subjects: (1) Ozone and UV-B Radiation; (2) Present and Past Cryospheric Processes; (3) Climatology and Atmospheric Processes; and (4) IAI and other international organizations. Following are the principal conclusions from each working group: Ozone and UV-B Radiation The group agreed that to understand ozone/UV-B processes, the IAI should take three major factors into account: Interdisciplinarity: Traditional boundaries of scientific disciplines must be crossed; atmospheric physicists must work closely with atmospheric chemists, modelers need to interact with instrumentation specialists, biological inputs are required. Non-linearity: Abrupt shifts in the biological composition of natural communities due to small increases in UV-B radiation mean that new non-linear approaches to such events must be made, beyond the linear models traditionally used in continuous, incremental change. Regionality: Because the effects of ozone depletion have already been measured in both the North and South Hemispheres of the Americas, research would be enhanced by the sharing of information. The main discussion of Ozone and UV-B radiation was divided into two main topics: (1) Ozone depletion and atmospheric processes: Opportunities for studying these processes vary from country to country, and IAI should take these variables into account and where possible, attempt to remedy them. They include variables in geographic and modeling opportunities; intellectual resources and training opportunities; and complementary technologies and specialist expertise. (2) Biological impacts of UV-B radiation: Major themes that should be given special attention in the Americas include: * bipolar comparisons of responses by populations, communities, and ecosystems * altitudinal versus latitudinal gradient comparisons * sensitivity of high latitude terrestrial ecosystems * bio-optical processes controlling UV-B penetration in marine and freshwater ecosystems * hydrodynamic forcing of UV-B effects (control of UV-B exposure by stratification and mixing processes) * interaction between global warming and UV-B effects, e.g., temperature dependence of UV-B damage-recovery processes * UV-B impacts on biogeochemical processes, and the implications for terrestrial and aquatic food webs * UV-B effects on air/water exchange processes, e.g., the biological carbon dioxide pump Regarding "UV-B and Human Sciences," the group agreed that it is important to study not only the direct physical and biological impacts of changes in UV-B, but also how such changes indirectly affect cultural, economic, social, and political processes. How do people adapt to and cope with the changes? How can the various publics be made more aware of the nature of scientific data and methodologies, and the ways they might be applied to decision making and adaptation? Other topics discussed include modeling efforts related to studies of UV-B radiation effects on organisms, and the handling and sharing of data. Present and Past Cryospheric Processes This group made the following proposals, suggesting that focus be made on the Southern Hemisphere: (1) Reconstruct the environmental and climatic history of the cryosphere in the Antarctic and South American continents (including the high altitudes). (2) Investigate the role of sea ice in the seasonal and year-to-year variations of deep-water production. (3) Investigate the sea ice-atmosphere interactions. (4) Determine the regional, hemispheric, or global impact of the Southern Hemisphere cryospheric processes and analyze the degree of their synchronism with the Northern Hemisphere. (5) Detect which of the cryospheric processes are most important in interacting with global climate, and at which time scale (seasonal, yearly, and/or decadal). (6) Investigate the impact of human activities on the cryospheric processes. (7) Intercalibrate the results obtained from different disciplines in the two hemispheres based on a common chronology. (8) Improve the representation of the cryospheric processes in the global climate models. The following were identified as key priority tasks: * clarification of the discrepancy between the model-predicted preferential warming of the high latitudes as opposed to the dominant warming of low latitudes observed in the past several decades; * explanation of the causes and prediction of future behavior of the currently observed slow-down of deep-water production in the northern North Atlantic, especially with respect to sea ice; * Investigation of the radiative interactions of CO2 with the high latitude cryosphere, especially with reference to the water vapor dependence of the greenhouse effect; * improvement within the climate models of the representation of the polar air outbreaks, of the summer snow melt in the Central Arctic, and of the sea ice dissipation in the Southern Ocean; and * Explanation of the onset of glaciations. Climatology and Atmospheric Processes The following are the main lines of inquiry to be considered: (1) Formation of Antarctic air masses and cold outbreaks moving over the South American continent, sometimes reaching to southern Brazil and causing considerable agricultural damage. (2) Surface and atmospheric measurements of the energy balance components and the use of satellite data for estimating solar and atmospheric radiation and heat fluxes involved in the energy balance of large areas. This could contribute to a better understanding of local and regional variations related to climate change. (3) The long-range effects of the El Ni=F1o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and related regional climatological rainfall anomalies in South America (south of Brazil, northeastern Argentina, central Chile, Altiplano, etc.) and associated blocking events. (4) Climatic characterization of the UV regime. UV radiation episodes are probably linked to the synoptic and long waves perturbations for which a short time prediction scheme may be very useful for the general public and for research field work. (5) Long-term evolution of basic atmospheric variables such as surface temperatures (over land and ocean) and rainfall. (6) Data gathering should be extended to short term field studies such as frost, since this kind of data, although brief, includes a more comprehensive set of variables. (7) Paleoclimatic time series; The climatic time series should be extended to the distant past for a greater understanding of climate change. (8) Energy and particle fluxes and spectral observations in the atmosphere and outer space. (9) Inter-annual variation of the intensity, extent, and duration of the ozone hole. It is important to have a good observational system of the dynamics of the stratosphere at Antarctic and neighboring latitudes. IAI and other International Organizations This group concluded that the IAI should address global change issues relevant to the American Continent and Antarctica while maintaining strong links with already existing international programs and institutions. The main objective of this group was to identify international programs already undertaking research on global change. It was emphasized that the success of the IAI is highly dependent on effective cooperation within the region, and with the other international programs. I. BACKGROUND The areas at the high latitudes of the earth are the coldest and most remote regions of the planet, and they play a critical part in the complex processes that structure the global environment. Understanding the causes and consequences of global environmental change requires scientific understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of these regions. Perhaps more than other areas of the earth, the polar regions are sensitive to global variations in temperature, sunlight, and precipitation. Their responses, in turn, influence significantly the magnitude and direction of these variations. The earliest and most intense responses to changes in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere are expected to show up first in these areas. Some modelers are predicting that a rise in average global temperature of l.5 degrees Celsius would produce a temperature hange of up to 6 degrees in the Arctic. A reduction in polar snow cover, glaciers and ice sheets due to global warming may raise global sea levels. Northern peatlands store 44 per cent of the world's soil carbon and arctic permafrost contains vast amounts of methane. Climate change will affect the release or uptake of these gases, which would enhance or diminish their effects in the atmosphere. Ozone depletion, first observed over Antarctica, is occurring over the Arctic and the more temperate latitudes as well, allowing increased levels of ultraviolet radiation to affect the biota. These and other environmental changes brought about by processes in the polar region have the potential for causing significant social and economic upheaval. Effects of Ozone Changes The 1985 report of observations of springtime stratospheric ozone depletion in the Antarctic led to a concerted research effort to understand the causes and dynamics of ozone depletion in polar regions. It has been shown that this ozone depletion is, in part, the result of contamination of the stratosphere by human activities. The importance of polar stratospheric clouds and the role of chlorine and other chemical species controlling the chemistry and dynamics of the Antarctic ozone hole have been the subject of intense research. Recent observations of ozone depletion in the Arctic and the excursions of the antarctic ozone hole over the southern portions of South America have led to increased interest in ozone depletion studies in high latitude regions, particularly in populated areas. The stability of stratospheric ozone is of great scientific interest and serious public concern. Changes in stratospheric ozone have known impacts in two broad areas of direct interest to human activities: (a) atmospheric structure and climate and (b) biosphere and human health. =09 Stratospheric and tropo-stratospheric exchange processes are close dependent on the ozone content. Its decline in the stratosphere and increase in the northern troposphere cause cooling and warming respectively. Ground-based and satellite observations of total ozone show a recent decrease at all latitudes, except the tropics, throughout the year. The downward trends of total ozone were larger by 1-2 per cent in the 1980's than in the 1970's, and significant additional losses of ozone are expected at middle and high latitudes as the stratospheric abundance of chlorine and bromine are expected to increase in the next decade. There was evidence of accelerated ozone decline over the northern middle latitudes and Antarctica during 1992 and 1993. Cryospheric Processes The climatic role of the cryosphere is considered important to understand the mechanisms of global climate change. The study of individual components of the cryospheric system is essential to properly understand the system as a whole. The cryosphere can be loosely defined as having three components: glacial ice, sea ice, and snow cover. Each of these components has distinct interrelationships with other components of the system. Depending on the spatial and temporal scales being considered, cryospheric components can be viewed as either indices of climate change or as interactive participants in a complex ocean- atmospheric-cryosphere climate system. Glacial ice serves as both a basis for a large and important class of paleoclimate studies and as the index for the current state of the climate. Ice sheets are unique in that they continuously preserve and record annual precipitation, atmospheric temperature, and components of the atmosphere. These components come from a variety of anthropogenic, biogenic, terrestrial, marine, and volcanic sources. Under ideal conditions, annual variations can be detected over thousands of years (Fig. 1). =46ig. 1: The Vostok ice core shows changes in atmospheric temperature, CO2 (Carbon dioxide), and CH4 (methane) over the past 150,000 years, and demonstrates a relationship between them. Sea ice and snow cover can be thought of as two elements of the larger climate system which includes the oceans and atmosphere. Cryosphere-atmosphere-ocean interactions are difficult to monitor and understand because of the inherent disparity in temporal scales among these various elements of the climate system. Atmospheric climate fluctuations operate on relatively short temporal time scales (weeks to months); snow cover is constrained by the annual cycle; but the oceans can contain temporal scales of several years to hundreds of years. Thus, the importance of various interactions and feedbacks among the components of the cryosphere- atmosphere-ocean climate system is, to a large extent, a function of the temporal scale being examined (Ropelewski, 1989). In short-term climate variability (months to seasons) the atmosphere and ocean interact strongly while the cryospheric elements of the system tend to play a more passive role. On the multi-year temporal scale, the atmosphere tends to become more constrained, more of a passive partner in the climate system, with more significant interactions between the oceans and the cryosphere. II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE The polar regions are unlike each other in several significant ways. The Arctic is an ice-covered ocean basin surrounded by continents, while the Antarctic is a continent capped with a thick ice sheet and surrounded by waters that freeze and thaw with the seasons. The Arctic region is inhabited by indigenous peoples and has rich and varied terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The Antarctic, on the other hand, has an exceptionally productive marine ecosystem but no native human population and few terrestrial organisms. The two regions share certain fundamental characteristics, however. The high solar reflectivity of the snow and sea ice that dominates the surface environment of both regions affects the Earth's climatic system in similar ways in each hemisphere, although the seasonal cycle of each is the reverse of the other. The magnetic field that controls the funneling of plasma and energetic charged particles from near-Earth into space to the surface of the Earth at the high latitudes unites the two poles in a single system. The formation of deep ocean water in both polar regions is a major force in the thermohaline circulation and the flux of carbon in the world ocean. And while Antarctica's ozone hole first attracted attention, depletions of ozone over the Arctic have now been detected as well. Both regions have a high negative radiation budget. Changes in that budget will prompt major global changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Sea ice and ice shelves promote the formation of cold bottom water that drains toward the equator and influences circulation patterns in oceans around the world. Sea Ice The mean annual cycle of global sea ice is relatively small, varying from a minimum of about 4% of the Earth's surface to a maximum of 5% (Ropelewski, 1989). The annual cycle is dominated by the Antarctic sea ice and thus minimum global sea ice coverage in Northern Hemisphere winter, while the maximum global coverage occurs in the Northern Hemisphere summer through fall. The role of sea ice in the climate system is complex. Sea ice forms or melts near -1.8=B0C. It both limits the rate at which the ocean loses energy and insulates the atmosphere from the ocean. Ice also reflects a large percentage of the incoming solar radiation and thus limits the rate at which the ocean gains energy. Over and near extensive areas of sea ice the average heat flux from the ocean to the atmosphere is dominated by extreme fluxes through small areas of open water or "leads." There has been considerable interest in the temporal variability of both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice (e.g., Lemke et al., 1980; Sturman and Anderson, 1984; Walsh and Slater, 1981; Gloersen and Campbell, 1988), spurred on by numerical model results suggesting that greenhouse gas warming may be greatest at high latitudes. Thus, some investigators have reasoned that anthropogenic climate change might be detectable in the behavior of sea ice in polar regions (Kukla and Gavin, 1981; Zwally et al., 1983). Unfortunately, the appropriate global sea ice time series are relatively short since they are limited to the era of satellite monitoring. The use of sea ice for monitoring climate change is further complicated by the large interannual variability in virtually all sea ice parameters and by subtle differences among the sea ice data sets (Fig.2).=09 British Antarctic Survey =09 =46ig. 2: An example of a major environmental change, perhaps due to global warming, is the disintegration of the Wordie Ice Shelf in Antarctica. Snow Cover Snow cover is the most variable element in the cryosphere. The average annual cycle of snow cover varies from approximately 2.7 per cent to 31 per cent of the land area, or 0.8 per cent to 9.1 per cent of the globe (Ropelewski, 1989). Most of this variability occurs in the Northern Hemisphere (Walsh, 1984) but some small, but potentially significant, variability can be seen in South America (Dewey, 1977; and Heim, 1983). Recent remodeling studies (Walsh and Ross, 1988) suggest that large variations in Eurasian snow cover can produce noticeable feedback into the large scale atmospheric circulation at 700 mb. Relationships between circulation patterns and snow cover variability are not as clear over small areas such as North America. Related modeling studies suggest that the influence of snow cover may be strongest during the snow melt season. The modeling study further suggests that the snow cover/atmospheric circulation relationships may come indirectly through the soil moisture. One would generally expect relationships between snow cover and temperature to be more direct and easier to demonstrate and, indeed, on the short term, these relationships have long been documented. On the seasonal and longer temporal scales, however, the snow cover-temperature relationships are not so clear. Comparisons of snow cover and temperature anomaly time series for Eurasia during the northern spring (March to May) suggest an inverse relationship, while those in the summer (June to August) and other seasons do not (Halpert and Ropelewski, 1991). Ambiguities are also evident through an examination of the relationships between snow cover patterns and temperature anomaly patterns. Over North America, e.g. for December 1990 to May 1991 the maximum cold season temperature anomalies tend to fall along the southern flanks of the snow cover anomalies but no clear pattern emerges for Eurasia. On the other hand, recent modeling studies by Cohen and Rind (1991) suggest strongly that negative feedbacks limit the impact of snow cover anomalies. They conclude that positive feedbacks between above normal snow cover and below normal temperatures are not evident on time scales greater than a week. However, Eurasian snow cover has been related to subsequent Indian monsoon rainfall (Hahn and Shukla, 1976). The physical mechanisms for this statistical relationship are not well understood, but recent numerical modeling experiments suggest that these relationships are indeed real. No comparable relationships have been found over the Americas. Glaciology Efforts to increase the predictive capacity of climate studies have all stressed the importance of understanding the interactive role of ice masses and the extraordinary environmental record they contain. Ice core research is an essential means of advancing knowledge of the history of the global climate. With joint support from the Glaciology and Climate Dynamics programs of the U.S. National Science =46oundation, researchers have retrieved ice cores from the Dunde Ice Cap of western China and the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru. Cores are also being sought in other locations that are difficult to work in, including the central and western Himalayas, Pakistan, China, New Guinea, Alaska and the Canadian and Soviet Arctic. An adequate understanding has not yet been reached of either the dynamics of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the stability of the ice sheet under global warming conditions. An ice core research program in West Antarctica will obtain crucial information on the history of the ice sheet, complementing data on configuration, mass balance, and ice flow from the Siple Coast Project. Other areas of Antarctica also offer attractive locations for deep drilling projects because low rates of snow accumulation allow access to very old ice. Cores collected from these areas would assist researchers in making detailed inter- hemispheric comparisons similar to those made using ocean cores. The purpose of the Siple Coast Project was to investigate the likelihood of change in the Ross Sea drainage section of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the resulting effects on global sea level and climate. Participants in the project concluded that changes in the ice sheet were currently taking place. Ozone Depletion The startling discovery that ozone is decreasing steadily in the antarctic stratosphere was made in 1983. The so-called "ozone hole" over Antarctica continues to grow in size and duration as years pass. The reduction occurs seasonally and is greatest in October when the polar stratosphere is coldest. Ground-based and satellite observations of total ozone show a recent decrease at all latitudes, except the tropics, throughout the year. The downward trends of total ozone were larger by 1- 2 per cent in the 1980's than in the 1970's, and significant additional losses of ozone are expected at middle and high latitudes as the stratospheric abundance of chlorine and bromine increase in the next decade. There was evidence of accelerated ozone decline, over the northern middle latitudes and Antarctica, during 1992 and 1993. A reduction in stratospheric ozone brings an increased flux of ultraviolet (UV) radiation to the Earth's surface and to ecologically significant depths in the oceans. The mid-ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) has been shown to be damaging to biological systems, including humans. Although UV-B damage to cells and tissues has been well-documented in laboratory studies, there is a lack of data from field studies, particularly in high latitude regions. One research effort documented the alteration of an Antarctic marine ecosystem during an ozone hole event. Data showed an increase in inhibition of photosynthesis. This research suggested that ozone-dependent shifts of spectral irradiances altered phytoplankton processes, including photoinhibition, photoprotection, photoreactivation, and photosynthesis. III. SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND PRIORITIES With their relative purity and low amounts of human habitation, the polar regions are natural laboratories for studying global change. Much research has already taken place and continues, but more is needed in a number of areas. To determine the major issues requiring study, the IAI workshop divided into three main working groups: (1) Ozone and UV-B Radiation (2) Present and Past Cryospheric Processes (3) Climatology and Atmospheric Processes The conclusions and recommendations of each group are presented as follows. OZONE AND UV-B RADIATION The recorded increase of UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface coupled with the decline in the total ozone content in the atmosphere highlights the urgent need for establishing long term systematic ozone and UV-B studies and monitoring. This need has been acknowledged by several international organizations. In this regard, the Americas represent a unique longitudinal and altitudinal stretch from Antarctica to the ice fields of the Arctic. IAI can therefore play a key role in improving the understanding of the ozone/UV-B global issue. This working group identified three major themes that it considered central to the understanding of ozone/UV-B processes and which it felt should be given priority attention by IAI: (1) INTERDISCIPLINARITY: Understanding the process of ozone depletion will require crossing traditional disciplinary boundaries. For example, atmospheric physicists need to work closely with atmospheric chemists and modelers need to interact with instrumentation specialists. Similarly, the assessment of biological impacts will require collaborative input from a broad range of biological and biogeochemical disciplines. (2) NON-LINEARITY: Most natural processes including physical, chemical, biological and behavioral responses are highly non- linear. New approaches will therefore be required to extend beyond the traditional linear models. Such non-linearities may result in systems moving to new temporary or permanent states via abrupt shifts rather than by continuous incremental change. =46or example, small increases in UV-B radiation associated with ozone depletion could cause major shifts in the biological species composition of natural communities, resulting in completely different ecosystem-level properties. (3) REGIONALITY: Two aspects of the ozone depletion problem make it of special relevance to the Inter-American region. First, this region includes areas already affected by ozone depletion in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Small biological responses have been measured in the Southern Ocean, and there has been a variety of political responses to the continuing rise of UV-B levels over Canada. Secondly, because the problem is close at hand, the Inter-American community can make a special contribution towards research, monitoring and further understanding of this aspect of global change. Early in its discussions, this working group agreed to discuss two topics: (a) ozone depletion and atmospheric processes and (2) biological impacts of UV-B radiation. The separation of these two areas of research was done only for practical reasons. The group agreed that the combination of results from both topics, based on a system-level approach, will be necessary for a better understanding of ozone and UV-B issues. Some parts of the discussion, such as data management and training, will apply to both topics. Ozone Depletion and Atmospheric Processes (a) Geographic Opportunities: The distribution of land masses within the Inter-American region facilitate the placement of ground-based stations in an almost complete latitudinal sequence, from north polar to south polar zones. There are also large altitudinal ranges that offer unique advantages for data gathering and experimental research. In South America there are high altitude areas (> 4,000 m) that can be easily accessed and which provide clean dry air conditions. This will facilitate high quality data gathering of profiles (both in the higher troposphere and stratosphere) of trace gases such as ozone, water vapor, CH4, N2O, etc., together with UV-B radiation and atmospheric variables. These high quality data, together with improved non-linear models, will contribute to the understanding of the dynamics and structure of the stratosphere and to improved circulation and climatological models. (b) Modeling Opportunities: Several types of models should be developed. Conceptual system-level, or process-level models are required to understand the interaction of non-linear atmospheric and biological processes. Although certain predictive models may have little explanatory power, they may play a major role in statistical predictions of future states. Descriptive models are required to address specific impact scenarios, e.g., to define the time-scales and variance of the UV- B field relative to the time-scales of biological damage and recovery processes. Considering that previous predictions of the atmospheric effects of CFCs could not anticipate the sudden appearance of the ozone hole, it is perhaps of great importance to recognize and understand the role of non-linear dynamics and analyze the possibility of complex or catastrophic responses by different environmental systems under steady or periodic anthropogenic perturbations. Systems models stimulating actual laboratory and field observations, built upon feedback, synergism, inhibition, self-replication, chain reactions, or autocatalytic processes should be explored as a way to focus research and monitoring efforts in the early phases of projects, and to provide the basis for the development of comprehensive, predictive models at later stages. A broad range of modeling expertise exists throughout the Americas. IAI could play a role in facilitating the transfer of model code and output. (c) Intellectual Resources: Both North and South America have major centers of learning and research. Key scientists in South America, for example, could contribute in an important way by critically evaluating the output of certain models and also by evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of such models. (d) Training Opportunities: Education opportunities abound throughout the two continents. Specific research institutions and universities can be identified that offer specialist training and which may be prepared to offer their facilities to IAI- sponsored students and research personnel. IAI could further facilitate this process by preparing an electronic catalogue of appropriate institutions and expertise. (e) Complementary Technologies: Specific technological skills for atmospheric research and UV impact analysis are located in different parts of the Americas. Different countries have undertaken, or may undertake, specific research tasks that are appropriate to their technological and resource bases as well as their national interests. For example, Peru has specific expertise in radar analysis of the atmosphere that will provide a moderate cost approach that will complement other research and monitoring programs. (f) Specialist Expertise: Individuals and research groups in various parts of the region, including throughout South America, have specialized skills and facilities. For example, atmospheric chemists in Argentina are working on laboratory systems in which fundamental contributions could be made toward understanding the ozone degradation processes. Biological Impacts of UV-B Radiation Attention was drawn to the large number of review articles recently published or in press, and the many international workshops conducted over the last three years which have identified the major priorities for UV-B biological research. IAI should build upon this information by identifying specific regional problems and research capabilities. For each of the regional atmospheric research opportunities identified above there are equivalent biological examples. Major biological themes that should be given special attention in the Americas include: * bipolar comparisons of responses at the levels of population, community and ecosystem; * altitudinal versus latitudinal gradient comparisons; * sensitivity of high latitude terrestrial ecosystems; * bio-optical processes controlling UV-B penetration in marine and freshwater ecosystems; * hydrodynamic forcing of UV-B effects (control of UV-B exposure by stratification and mixing processes; * interaction between global warming and UV-B effects, e.g., temperature dependence of UV-B damage/recovery processes; * UV-B impacts on biogeochemical processes and implications for terrestrial and aquatic food webs; and * UV-B effects on air/water exchange processes, e.g., the biological carbon dioxide pump. UV-B and Human Sciences The importance of UV-B on the population has to be understood in terms of the human sciences. Human sciences include the social sciences (e.g., economics, sociology, political science), behavioral sciences (e.g., psychology, physiopsychology), human biology and medicine (including public health, preventative medicine) and communications (education, mass media studies). Scientific data by themselves are not enough; they have to be understood and used by concerned audiences (e.g., governments, mass media, general public, education system). Human beings constitute the one component of the natural system that can consciously and deliberately adapt itself and possibly take advantage of environmental changes. PRESENT AND PAST CRYOSPHERIC PROCESSES This working group supports the conclusions and recommendations of the Working Group on Sciences of the IAI Workshop in Mar del Plata, Argentina, in 1992. However, the climatic role of the cryosphere, not properly discussed in the document produced there, is considered important to understand the mechanism of the global climate change. The study of the individual cyrospheric components of the system is essential to properly understand the system as a whole. In addition to the priority scientific issues listed in the document mentioned above, this working group proposes, with focus on the Southern Hemisphere, undertaking the following activities: (1) Reconstruct the environmental and climatic history of the cryosphere in the Antarctic and South American continents (including the high altitudes). (2) Investigate the role of sea ice in the seasonal and year-to- year variations of the deep-water production. (3) Investigate the sea ice-atmosphere interactions, especially with respect to winds and cloud cover. (4) Determine the regional, hemispheric, or global impact of the Southern Hemisphere cryospheric processes and analyze the degree of their synchronism with the Northern Hemisphere. (5) Detect which of the cryospheric processes are most important in interacting with global climate, and at which time scale (seasonal, yearly, and/or decadal). (6) Investigate the impact of human activities on the cryospheric processes. (7) Intercalibrate the results obtained from the different disciplines in the two hemispheres based on a common chronology. (8) Improve the representation of the cryospheric processes in the global climate models. This working group also agrees with the scientific goals of the "Initial Science Plan on Ocean-Atmosphere-Ice Interactions in the Arctic," edited by the ARCSS OAII Group in August 1992. The group underlines in particular the dominant importance of the hydrologic cycle in the middle and high latitudes of both hemispheres and its links with the oceanic thermohaline circulations. The key priority tasks, critically affecting the accuracy of climate model projections for both hemispheres, are: --To clarify the discrepancy between the model-predicted preferential warming of the high latitudes as opposed to the observed dominant warming of low latitudes observed in the last several decades. -- To explain the causes and predict the future behavior of the currently observed slow-down of the deep water production in the northern North Atlantic, especially with respect to sea ice. -- To investigate the radiative interactions of CO2 with the high latitude cryosphere, especially with reference to the water vapor dependence of the greenhouse effect. --To improve in the climate models the representation of the polar air outbreaks, of the summer snow melt in Central Arctic, and of the sea ice dissipation in the Southern Ocean. --To explain the onset of the glaciations. The current state of knowledge of the issues mentioned above is sufficient to proceed with the proposed studies, but in South America the data are scarce in comparison with the North. At present, human and material resources are insufficient to achieve the goals proposed. A high degree of consensus exists on the priorities status of the research, as manifested by the large number of existing interdisciplinary and multinational programs. Climate changes caused by cryospheric processes are usually perceived by the public through extreme anomalies reached on the short-term and medium-term time scales (i.e., annual to decadal), and which have the most immediate socio- economic impact. Intensified research of the cryosphere in terms of such anomalies would allow improved planning and management of natural resources. The generated databases should be conclusive and the results should have predictive value. At the same time, such databases would significantly improve our understanding of climate systems on a global scale. It is the opinion of this working group that some of the main areas to be addressed by further research are: --Snow and ice cover, sea ice physics, and variations. --Impact of cryosphere on sea level changes. --Impact of explosive volcanism and of industrial aerosols on the cryosphere. --Impact of the cryosphere on the mid-latitude climates. --Ice core studies to record climatic and atmospheric variations (global and regional scales). --Paleoclimatology (historical climatology, geochronology, dendrochronology, micropaleontology, geochemistry, Quaternary sedimentology). --Geocryology. --Biological, geochemical and sedimentological parameters, indicators of global change. --Glaciology (glacier variations, mass balance, ice dynamics. The fact that the main research areas involve different but related disciplines, requires that each established working group will have to specify in detail its priority tasks needed to reach the proposed goals. Financial support is in particularly short supply for South American investigators. Due to the differences in the budgeting procedures it is recommended to establish separate funding sources for each of the hemispheres. To address successfully all the above listed issues, the investigators need to have easy access to key existing data sets of related programs. They also need to improve contacts with the data banks when making available their own data and results to the remainder of the scientific community. To achieve this objective the appropriate computing facilities should be made available, capable of handling the high data volumes generated. The priorities in education and training include the establishment of a unified system of fellowships, courses at different educational levels, and efficient exchanges of technology and expertise. For that purpose the IAI must promote a vigorous educational effort, in particular in Latin American countries (refer to p. 13 of the IC/IAI Newsletter, Issue 1, December, 1992). Although modeling is not seen as a distinct element of the above listed scientific research, it will occur naturally as part of all the studies, and it will play a vital and synthesizing function in several IAI programs. The feedbacks among snow, ice, albedo, clouds, aerosols and radiation are inherently tied to the atmospheric temperature, and heat and mass transport, so that the modeling studies ultimately involve global domains. Interactions related to changing concentrations of trace gases, aerosols, and haze in the polar atmosphere are likely to involve sources and sinks over land and the oceans on global scale. Given the fact that the study of the cryosphere is of a multidisciplinary and systemic nature, it is essential to immediately incorporate the new observations and analytical results into the global scale modeling framework, and in that way improve the representation of the cryospheric processes in the coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models. Modeling efforts should be planned carefully, initiated early, and coordinated with the other working groups throughout the IAI program. CLIMATOLOGY AND ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES The World Climate Research Program launched in 1979 receives support from a number of international organizations because of its focus on environmental problems on the global scale. It occurs to this working group, however, that IAI offers the possibility of focusing on smaller scales, both regional and local. The necessity ofclimate variation studies in these smaller scales is due to the required higher resolution for planning ameliorating strategies and measures to alleviate the impact of expected environmental changes. Although the earth's atmosphere, on the annual mean, exhibits a good deal of symmetry around the equator forced by solar radiation, there are subtle but important differences between both hemispheres. The most evident one is the different ocean-continent distribution, the consequences of which extend at least up into the mesosphere (100 km) through the vertical propagation of gravity waves. Among the most important interhemispheric contrasts is the springtime ozone depletion, with an austral intensity that largely exceeds its northern counterpart. The southern atmosphere at high latitudes hosts several important processes, some of which are unique because of the particular features of the underlying surface. In the first place, the geographical position of a large and elevated continent that extends fairly symmetrically around the pole surrounded by the only oceanic current able to circle the earth, contrasts with a northern polar ocean with two large land masses reaching very high latitudes. But in the extratropical, relatively narrow part of the American continent up to 55=B0S, the Andean wall represents a significant barrier to the west wind circulation. This may be considered a natural unique "experimental chamber" on the globe for large scale atmosphere-topography interaction. This asymmetry is associated with important atmospheric differences like a meridional temperature gradient, twice as large as in the Northern Hemisphere, giving rise to a more rapid zonal atmospheric circulation over which longer waves with more vertical axes (quasi-barotropic waves) are superimposed; a single large storm track south of the Australian continent contrasts with its northern counterpart where two strong tracks and a third weaker one have been detected. In the stratosphere the contrast is even more evident, especially in the winter and spring dynamics when the polar vortex stability contributes to a drastic ozone destruction. All this adds to the interest of studying the southern circulation in the frame of an interhemispherical comparative study. In the detection problem of climatic change one is faced with small and slow changes of atmospheric variables within noisy background. Therefore sensitive indicators are most desirable. In this context, changes in the mesosphere can be used. Atmospheric Processes Particles flux coming from the sun interacts with the upper atmosphere and troposphere variations in their structure and composition. It is possible to find processes at altitudes higher than the middle atmosphere that may have a direct impact on the biosphere. These kinds of phenomena might be large enough to be detected in temperature and pressure observations. Therefore, it is desirable to study cosmic radiation and geomagnetic activity that may complement the present knowledge on the sun-space-earth system and its interaction with the atmosphere. Main lines to be considered are as follows: --Formation of antarctic air masses and cold outbreaks moving over the South American continent and sometimes reaching up to southern Brazil with considerable agricultural damage. =46ormation and lifetime are determined mainly by the surface energy balance over the Antarctic continent and surrounding seas. Frequency and extent of these cold outbreaks must be assessed not only for their own sake but also as a determining factor in long-term temperature variations. --One of the most important tasks for an adequate description of the relation between atmosphere and the earth's surface is the knowledge of the radiation balance at the surface. This balance dominates the energy budget of ice sheets, snow surface and the Antarctic Ocean. In high latitudes (Antarctic) and high mountains exists a lack of reliable surface-based climatology and atmospheric studies,and particular difficulties attending the interpretation of remote sensing data over snow and ice surfaces. Surface and atmospheric measurements of the energy balance components and the use of satellite data for estimating solar and atmospheric radiation and heat fluxes involved in the energy balance of large areas could contribute to a better understanding of local and regional variations related to climate change. --El Ni=F1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) teleconnections and related regional climatological rainfall anomalies in South America (S of Brazil and NE Argentina, Central Chile, Altiplano, etc.) and associated blocking events. They have profound impact on the occurrence of drought and floods and on agriculture and fisheries. --A climatic characterization of the UV regime seems to be in order to provide biologists with a basic input to their impact studies. UV radiation episodes probably linked to the synoptic and long wave perturbations for which a short time prediction scheme may be useful for general public and some kind of research field work. --Atmospheric physical processes related to climatic change. =46or instance, lower atmosphere vertical structure associated with a rainfall positive trend in Buenos Aires and nearby areas producing floods or negative trends in semi-arid central Chile that may generate aridification. --Long-term evolution of basic atmospheric variables as surface temperatures (over land and ocean) and rainfall (but others also, such as cloudiness). There is an urgent need for long and trustful time series of surface and free-air variables. Of primary importance is the homogeneity of climatological data because nearly all the instrumental South American records in use in the large scale programs show breaks in the Forties or =46ifties of the present century, when the stations were moved to airports without simultaneous observations. But there are some homogenous records to which the scientific community of the continent has no easy access. The problem in exchanging this type of information (series of means for certain periods or data in extenso), as well as corresponding problems in establishing a future IAI data base should be an item of high priority. This kind of data will directly serve the objectives of global climate change issues and socioeconomic consequences of climate. Data gathering should be extended to short term field studies, as in =46ROST, since this kind of data, although brief, includes a more comprehensive set of variables. --Paleoclimatic time series: The extension of climatic time series to the distant past should be estimulated. The austral cone of South America is the only non-polar continent extending into southern high latitudes. Its richness of glacial features, as periglacial lakes and moraines, and forests with longlife species, host abundant evidence of past climates. -- A good understanding of the interannual variation of the intensity, extent, and duration of the ozone hole needs a good description of the wind systems at high latitudes and at stratospheric altitudes. The breakdown of the vortex into higher order modes is responsible for the transport of depleted regions, originally at Antarctic latitudes, into lower latitudes which include the southern tip of the American continent. It is important, therefore, to have a good observational system of the dynamics of the stratosphere at Antarctic and neighboring latitudes. Available observational techniques include rawinsondes, satellite remote sensing, and radar wind profilers. Radar wind profilers have proven to be an effective technique for the observation of winds at tropospheric and lower stratospheric altitudes. They offer high temporal resolution and the unique possibility of measuring the very small vertical component of the wind. A network of wind profilers along the American longitude at high latitudes would provide valuable information about the dynamics of the lower stratosphere and its relation with the formation anddestruction of the ozone hole, and the transport of depleted regions at lower latitudes. Mesospheric Processes and Global Change Although it is difficult to find processes at altitudes higher than the ozonosphere that may have a direct impact on the biosphere, the reverse is not true. In fact, the destruction of ozone by human-related activities is a good example. It is physically plausible that human activities could affect the state of the atmosphere at even higher altitudes. One topic to be addressed is the possibility that processes responsible for the change of global ozone, CO2, and other trace gases may change the temperature of the mesopause. One phenomenon has already been identified--the formation of noctilucent clouds (NLC) and polar mesospheric clouds (PMC) at the coldest region on earth: the polar mesopause. These clouds, being produced by a condensation process, are very sensitive to both spatial and temporal variations in temperature. Their possible relevance to global change comes from the observation that these clouds, as spectacular and beautiful as they are, have not been reported earlier than the Industrial Revolution. More recently, a very conspicuous phenomenon related to their existence has been observed, namely the detection by radars of very strong echoes from the same altitude and regions. The literature refers to them as Polar Mesospheric Summer Echoes (PMSE), and intensive observational and theoretical efforts are directed toward their understanding. The sensitivity of NLC, PMC, and PMSE to mesopause temperature can be an indicator of global change, and might be explored. Efforts to observe them at comparable southern latitudes have been unsuccessful. If existing, they are at least three order of magnitude weaker than their northern counterparts. Small temperature differences may be the cause. IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS Although general issues and priorities to be pursued in a science agenda for high latitude processes were discussed in the previous section, some specific research questions were raised at the workshop. They are listed as follows, according to their respective categories. UV-B and Human Sciences It is important to study not only the direct physical and biological impacts of changes in UV-B, but also how such changes indirectly effect cultural, economic, social and political processes, how people adapt to and cope with the changes, and how the various publics can be made more aware of the nature of scientific data, scientific methodologies, and the application of these to decision making and adaptation. Thus, research questions should include the following: * What are the short and long-term implications of increased exposure to UV-B on human health (skin cancers, cataracts, weakened immune system response)? * What are the potential impacts on human systems of possible increasing blindness on domesticated and wild animals? * What are the potential impacts of changes in UV-B dosages on the tourism industry? * What are the processes involved and the potential consequences of decision-making under uncertainty? * What are the effects of increased UV-B exposure on certain medications such as antibiotics? * What is the risk perception throughout the region in relation to ozone/UV-B processes? * What is the impact of a society's perception of global change on its individual and collective actions? Sea Ice * To what extent do high frequency changes in the sea ice, resulting from short-term fluctuations or even weather, feed back into monthly, seasonal and multi-seasonal mean atmospheric circulation patterns? * Do slow changes in the configuration (orientation, annual cycle) of sea ice extent change standing long wave atmospheric circulation patterns in the regions? * Do slow changes in the thickness of sea ice affect standing long oceanic circulation patterns and the corresponding biota in the regions? * What are the inter-relationships among interannual atmospheric variability, sea ice (extent and thickness), and ocean circulation? * Are there relationships between Antarctic sea ice and ENSO? Snow Cover * An ambiguous relationship among snow cover, atmospheric temperature, and atmospheric circulation marks current observational and modeling studies. Clearly this issue needs to be examined in the regional context and on several temporal scales. What are the relationships between snow cover and the atmosphere on weekly, monthly, seasonal, and multi-seasonal temporal scales? * Dewey and Heim (1983) find that in the Southern Hemisphere, Andean snow cover is the only area that shows significant interannual variability. What are the sources of that variability? The sources need to be examined in the context of large-scale circulation anomalies including ENSO. * Snow cover is extremely difficult to monitor. The longest Northern Hemisphere snow cover time series comes (November 1966 to the present) from the interpretation of visible satellite imagery. With the advent of new satellite microwave technology, it is not clear that these analyses will continue into the future. Can they be related to the new generation of snow cover observations? Atmospheric Processes * What are the ultimate chemical and physical processes that lead to ozone depletion? * What are the effects of increased temperature and radiation on atmospheric chemistry processes? * What effect does ENSO have on high latitude climate? * What are the effects of Arctic air pollution? * What effect does climate change have on air-sea exchanges? V. APPROACH To address the issues raised by the working groups at the IAI workshop and the research questions there posed, a regional network of researchers at institutions and study sites is needed to gather data, exchange data, and synthesize efforts. The following approaches were suggested, per category, as a means of advancing the scientific agenda on high latitude processes. Cryosphere The relationships among the ocean circulation, sea ice, and atmospheric circulation at different temporal scales need to be examined in greater detail. Foremost among the requirements to perform this research is the necessity to obtain and maintain sufficient observations in each of these climate spheres. Much of the remotely sensed portion of this data base can be built with existing and planned observational satellite systems. Ironically, basic surface observations are much more sparse and more difficult to obtain. The setting of observational, data, and data base requirements for sea ice, ocean circulation, and atmospheric circulation and their subsequent implementation is a necessary first step in developing a successful high latitude research program. Variability in Northern Hemisphere sea ice may be most important in its interactions with the ocean currents and regional atmospheric circulation patterns in the Davis Strait. This is an area of complex interactions that could provide important indices of global change and interannual variability as well as being an important fishery. Empirical and modeling studies are needed, which include data from each component of the system. In the Northern Hemisphere the maximum sea ice extent is limited by the physical boundaries provided by the continents. On the other hand, in the Southern Hemisphere sea ice has no such physical constraints. Thus the maximum Southern Hemisphere sea ice extent is determined by complex interactions among the ocean-cryosphere-atmosphere system. The interplay between these three components of the climate system needs to be studied through a series of well-designed and performed observational and modeling studies. For instance, how do these three modulate each other's mean annual cycle? How do the high latitude oceans relate to ENSO? How do sea ice variations relate to ENSO? North American snow cover needs to be studied in relation to variability in the global circulation system. Its impact and interactions on the radiation balance, hydrologic cycle, and biosphere on temporal scales ranging from weeks through years need to be examined in a systematic way. It does not seem likely that Southern Hemisphere snow cover will have a large impact on the global scale. In South America, however, snow occurs at both high and low latitudes and snow cover variations may provide valuable indices of climate variability. Glaciology Snow and ice, the main elements of high latitude environmental systems, play an active role in the control of the global climate. The documentation of the unique climatic indicators found in polar and temperate ice is critical to an understanding of globally coupled environmental systems. Human modification of climate may cause major changes in global ice volume and sea level. A clear reconstruction of climatic history is essential for testing theories that predict future climate change. A global set of high-resolution ice cores is essential for establishing linkages between hemispheres and between high and low latitudes in order to determine the synchroneity of specific climatic events and the nature and geographical extent of environmental perturbations. Ice cores can be used to study issues of current social and economic concerns, such as the atmospheric impact of anthropogenic emissions or the effects of ENSO patterns. A global array of ice cores would also provide significant data for the development of global circulation models and for testing of these models. Ozone Depletion and UV-B Radiation Effects An understanding of the response of living systems to UV- B is required to forecast effects resulting from potential increases in radiation from UV-B reaching the earth. Research efforts should include both the creation of a UV-B monitoring network and increased research to assess the effects on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine communities. IAI could play the following roles: (1) Provision of funding for multinational collaborative programs, particularly if these cannot be funded through other agencies. (2) Leveraging research funds. (3) Advocating specific research themes, funding priorities and strategies for long-term ecological research. (4) Promoting public awareness of recent scientific findings nd controversies, by the production of fact sheets, for example. (5) Facilitating the standardization, transfer, and management of relevant data. (6) Promoting educational opportunities, particularly for South American research personnel. (7) Compilation and maintenance of an electronic catalogue of expertise and facilities. (8) Identification of specific research sites within the Americas of high regional and/or global significance. The criteria for selection might include: * potential sensitivity to global change; * comparability with existing research sites; * potential to fill major gaps; and * existing research facilities and personnel. The working group on ozone depletion and ultraviolet-B radiation discussed the possibility of identifying key ecosystems and sites in the Americas with the possibility of comparing/contrasting North-South systems in their response to increased UV-B radiation. The group proposed the use of simple models to help in identifying key processes in these systems. Examples of key processes in ecosystems are food web interactions (i.e. prey-predator relationships), physical forcing of biological processes (i.e. advection in coastal environments), etc. Modeling the effects of UV-B radiation on biological systems should incorporate responses at different organizational levels, from molecules to ecosystems. This, in turn, will require the modeling of UV-B biological effects at time and spatial scales from seconds to years and from millimeters to kilometers. The understanding of long term effects of the UV-B radiation at the ecosystem level will require consideration of feedback processes in addition to the direct effects of UV-B radiation on organisms. For example, it has been shown that UV- B radiation increases the availability of iron to marine phytoplankton. In environments where this micronutrient might be limiting processes, i.e. primary production in open Antarctic waters, such an effect could diminish or counteract UV-B damage at the population level. On the other hand other changes, such as community structure could still be affected. In summary, several steps could be taken in order to implement modeling efforts in our understanding/contrasting of North-South ecosystems under UV-B stress. (1) Identification of ecosystems in the Americas, which have regional importance and might be expected to be exposed to enhanced UV-B radiation. Efforts should be made to try to concentrate on "simple" systems. Permafrost might be one to consider, in particular because of its sensitivity to increased ambient temperature. (2) Establishment of monitoring sites in both hemispheres, following the pattern of environmental observation, like the one carried out by the World Meteorological Organization. (3) Use of simple models, to identify key relationships in the ecosystems. (4) Creating scenarios of effects of increased UV-B radiation on these interactions, looking for non-linear effects. The proposed modeling should complement other types of modeling already underway and of the utmost importance to biologists. These models are now being produced or studied in other parts of the world. IAI should play an active role in encouraging exchange of biological information and modeling efforts both among Inter-American scientists and between them and researchers outside the region. Some of the most relevant of these would be: (1) Short and long-term prediction of UV-B radiation at a site, given ozone levels and meteorologic conditions. These models are of short-term and long-term prediction; (2) Modification of UV-B transmission by physical and biological factors close to the earth's surface, such as the forest canopy in terrestrial ecosystems and the water column in aquatic environments; (3) Modification of UV-B transmission through interfaces, i.e. ocean-interface. Data Handling and Sharing Since the International Geophysical Year, all governments accepted the policy that all ozone data should be made available to all countries and individual scientists, free of charge, through WMO World Ozone Data Center operated by AES in Toronto. This is done on a monthly basis. Starting in 1994 this policy will include UV-B data. The timely (monthly exchange) of observational data is thus a prerequisite for any scientific study and assessment. IAI should address, as a priority, the contentious issue of how data can be shared most effectively between contributing partners. Aspects to be considered should include: * ownership and publication rights to the data. * quality control of the data. * timely reporting of data sets. * cautionary methodological commentaries. VI. RELATED PROGRAMS Because it is widely recognized that global change research must be done in an interdisciplinary and international approach, a separate working group was formed at the workshop to identify international programs already in operation. The IAI will address global change issues relevant to the Americas and Antarctica, but it plans to do so through strong links with already existing international programs and institutions. Issues especially relevant to the American continents will be emphasized in the international programs identified. Close links with those international institutions must be forged at the scientific level, through cooperation and co-participation. The working group recognizes the difficulty of a small number of scientists attempting to address all issues of global change in their region. It is difficult to provide a complete list of all programs relevant to IAI interests, as some programs are broad in scope without particular focus on the American continents. The following list includes those considered important to the IAI scientific agenda: --Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW) --World Climate Research Program (WCRP) Within the above programs, the following projects are identified: --World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) --Antarctic Ice Thickness Monitoring Project (AITMP) --Stratospheric Processes and their role in Climate (SPARC) --Antarctic Ice Drifting Buoy Project (AIDBP) --Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) The other major international program recognized is: --International Geosphere and Biosphere Program (IGBP) Within IGBP, the following projects are identified: --Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) --Part Global Changes (PAGES) --International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) Other programs identified are: --Global Change in Antarctica (GLOCHANT) --International Research Institute for Climate Prediction (IRICP) --International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP) --Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) --Global Paleoclimates (GLOPALS) --Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC) --Human Dimension Program (HDP) Several international organizations that IAI should cooperate with closely are: --International Council of Scientific Union (ICSU) --Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) --Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR) --Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) --World Meteorological Organization (WMO) --International Ocean Committee (IOC) --United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) --Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) --International Union of Geophysical Science (IUGS) --International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) The group recognizes the importance of integrating social science studies with particular emphasis on the impact of global change on societies. It recognizes also the need within the American continents for better integration of the vast network of data collection platforms. This must be done with strong links to GAW or other monitoring programs. The success of the IAI program is highly dependent on an effective international cooperation within the region and with international programs. VII. REFERENCES Cohen, J., and D. Rind, 1991: The Effect of Snow Cover on Climate. J. of Clim., 4, 689-706. Dewey, K.F., and R. Heim, Jr., 1983: Satellite Observations of Variations in Southern Hemisphere Snow Cover. NOAA Tech. Report NESDIS 1, 20 pp. Dewey, K. F., 1977: Daily Maximum and Minimum Temperature =46orecasts and the Influence on Snow Cover. Mon., Wea. Rev., 105, 1594-97. Gloersen P., and W. J. Campbell, 1988: Variations in the Arctic, Antarctic, and Global Sea Ice Covers During 1989-1987 As Observed with the Nimbus 7 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer. Jour. of Geoph. Res., 93, 10,666-10674. Hahn, D. G., and J. Shukla, 1976: An Apparent Relationship Between Snow Cover and Indian Monsoon Rainfall. J. Atmos. Sci., 33,2461-62. Halpert M. S. and C. F. Ropelewski, 1991: Climate Assessment, A Decadal Review 1981-1990. U. S. Govt. Printing Office. 200pp. Kukla, G., and J. Gavin , 1981: Summer Ice and Carbon Dioxide, Science, 214, 497-503. Lemke, P., E. W. Trinkl and K. Hasselmann, 1980: Summer Ice and Carbon Dioxide. Science, 214, 497-503. Ropelewski C. F. 1989: Monitoring Large-Scale Cryosphere- Atmosphere Interactions. Adv. in Space Res. 9, No. 7,213-218. Sturman, A. P. and M. R. Anderson, 1984: A Comparison of Antarctic Sea Data Sets and Inferred Trends in Ice Area. Jour. of Clim. and Appl. Met, 24,275-280. Walsh J. E. and J . E. Slater, 1981: Monthly and Seasonal Variability in the Ocean-Ice-Atmosphere Systems of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic, Jour. of Geoph. Res. 86,7425- 7445. Walsh, J. E, 1984: Snow Cover and Atmospheric Variability. American Scientist, 72, 50-57. Walsh, J. E., and B. Ross, 1988: Sensitivity of 30-Day Dynamical =46orecasts to Continental Snow Cover. Journal of Climate, 1,39- 754. Zwally, H. J., C. L. Parkinson and J. C. Comiso, 1983a: Variability of Antarctic Sea Ice and Changes in Carbon Dioxide, Science, 220, 1005-1012. APPENDIX 1 IAI INITIAL SCIENTIFIC THEMES * The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems; * High Latitude Processes; * Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical Americas; * Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles; * ENSO and Interannual Climate Variability; * The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems; * The Study of the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity. APPENDIX 2 ACRONYMS IAI Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research UV Ultraviolet UV-B Mid Ultraviolet Radiation CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons ARCSS Arctic Climate System Study OAII Office of Administration II IC/IAI Implementation Committee/Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research PMC Pacific Marine Center NLC Noctilucent Clouds PMSE Polar Mesospheric Summer Echoes PMC Pacific Marine Center ENSO El Ni=F1o/Southern Oscillation and Interannual Climate Variability GAW Global Atmospheric Watch APPENDIX 3 WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS Salvador Alaimo=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de Mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 312 4481=09 =46ax (54 1) 311 3968 =09 Eduardo Ban=FAs=09 Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global=09 Av. C=F3rdoba 831, Piso 1, Buenos Aires 1054 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 312 1482=09 =46ax (54 1) 312 1482 =09 Elvira Gentile=09 IAI Newsletter=09 Av. Montes de Oca 2124, Buenos Aires 1271 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 217 576=09 =46ax (54 1) 303 2299=09 70501.2436@compuserve.com =09 Eduardo Rodriguez=09 SIHN Departamento Oceanograf=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09 =46ax (54 1) 217 797 =09 Demetrio Boltovoskoy=09 UBA-CONICET=09 Departamento Cs. Biolog=EDa=09 =46acultad de Ciencias Exatas y Nac.- UBA, Buenos Aires 1428 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 781 5020=09 =46ax (541) 790 9591=09 postmaster@plankt.edu.ar =09 Jos=E9 Hoffman=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 4481 =46ax (541) 312 3968 =09 Mar=EDa del Carmen Vera=09 INGEIS - CONICET Pb. INGEIS=09 Ciudad Universitaria 1170, Buenos Aires ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 783 3021=09 =46ax (54 1) 783 3024=09 marta@antar.org.ar =09 Claudio Parica=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 1689=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Pedro Svarka=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 1689=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Rodolfo del Valle=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 1689=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Sandra Mar=EDa Vivequin=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 0199=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Irene Schloss=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 0199=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Viviana Alder=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 0071=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Marta Barbanto=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 0071=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Nora Graciela Guida=09 INGEIS-Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Pb. INGEIS, Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1170 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 783 3021=09 =46ax (541) 783 3024 =09 Roberto Argentino Vallverdu=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 0199=09 =46ax (541) 812 2319 =09 Susan Diaz=09 CADIC-CONICET=09 Ruta 3 y M. arg. CADIC CC92-9410, Ushuaia ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 901) 30526=09 =46ax (54 901) 30644 =09 Dario Trombotto=09 CENPAT=09 Boulevard Brown 3000, 9120 Pto Madryn ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 09) 65 51 024=09 =46ax (54 09) 65 71 543 =09 Agustin Colussi=09 CONICET=09 =46unes 3350, Mar del Plata 7600 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 023) 45525=09 =46ax (54 023) 40887 =09 Alberto Aristarain=09 IAA-CONICET=09 lab. de Estratigraf=EDa Glaciar=09 CRICYTCC 330 Mendoza ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 061) 24 1029=09 =46ax (54 061) 380370 =09 Arturo Amos=09 PROGEBA=09 Calle Horacio Cruz=09 s/n B Capitue 1m 5.2 Ruta=09 Exequiel Bustalio Apart 47, Banlocke 8400 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 0944) 42056=09 =46ax. (54 0944) 42056 =09 Salvador Puliafrto=09 Universidad de Mendoza=09 Av. Boulogne Sar Mer 465, Mendoza 5500 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 61) 39 2939=09 =46ax (54 61) 31 1100 =09 Luis Vicente Orce=09 CIBHOM-CONICET=09 Senrano 669, Buenos Aires ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 798 2365=09 =46ax (541) 798 7165 =09 Gustavo R. Talamoni=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 311 7476=09 =46ax (541) 311 3968 =09 Silvia E. Nu=F1ez=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 4481/89 =46ax (541) 312 3968 =09 M=F3nica B. Marino=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 4481/89=09 =46ax (541) 311 3968 =09 Mario J. Garcia=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 685, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 4481/89=09 =46ax (541) 312 3968 =09 Horacio Ciappessoni=09 Servicio Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 4481/89=09 =46ax (541) 311 3968 =09 Virginia M. Silbergleit=09 CONICET=09 Pab. II Depto. Ciencias Geol=F3gicas=09 Ciudad Universitaria. 1428; Buenos Aires ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 781 8215=09 =46ax (541) 788 3439 =09 Adriana Elsa Fern=E1ndez=09 Depto. Ciencias de la Atm=F3sfera -UBA=09 Pabell=F3n II Piso 2-Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428=09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 782 6528=09 =46ax (541) 788 3572=09 fernandez@cina.uba:ar =09 Mar=EDa Luz Duarte=09 Depto. Ciencias de la Atm=F3sfera-UBA=09 Pabell=F3n II Pisa 2 Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428=09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 788 3572=09 =46ax (541) 688 3572 =09 Vicente Barros=09 Depto. Ciencias de la Atm=F3sfera-UBA=09 Pabell=F3n II Piso 2 Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428=09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 782 6528=09 =46ax (541) 782 0620 =09 Rosa Compagnocci Depto. Ciencias. de la Atm=F3sfera UBA=09 Pabell=F3n II Piso 2 Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires 1428 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 782 6528=09 =46ax (541) 782 0620 =09 Wolfgang Volkheimer=09 IANIGLA/CRICYT Mendoza=09 Calle Bajada del Cerro S/N, Mendoza 5500 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 061) 241 029=09 =46ax (54 061) 380 370 =09 Carlos L. Ballare=09 IFEVA-Depto. Ecol. Gac Agronom=EDa=09 Av. San Mart=EDn 4453, Buenos Aires 1417=09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 501 4692=09 =46ax (541) 501 4692 =09 Ana L. Scopel=09 IFEVA - Faculdad de Agronom=EDa UBA=09 Av. San Mart=EDn 4453, Buenos Aires 1417 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 522 0903=09 =46ax (541) 501 4692 =09 =46abian G=F3mez=09 Sec. de Rec. Nat y Amb. Humano=09 San Mart=EDn 459 Piso 4, Buenos Aires 1004 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 322 3536=09 =46ax (541) 325 7679 =09 Ricardo Poy=09 Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval=09 Av. Montes de Oca 2124, Buenos Aires 1271 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 217 797=09 =46ax (541) 303 2299 =09 Requena Fernando=09 Servico Meteorol=F3gico Nacional=09 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires 1002 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 4481 =46ax (541) 311 3968 =09 C=E9lia Izquierdo=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 1689=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Ana Mar=EDa Retsin=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248, Buenos Aires 1010 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 812 1689=09 =46ax (541) 812 2039 =09 Laura Tarallo=09 IAI Newsletter Av. Montes de Oca 2124, Buenos Aires 1271 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 217 576=09 =46ax (541) 303 2299 =09 Paulo Artaxo=09 Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09 Instituto de F=EDsica=09 Caixa Postal 20516-CEP 0452-990=09 S=E3o Paulo, SP 01498-970=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 11) 818 7016=09 =46ax (55 11) 814 0503=09 artaxo@uspif.if.usp.br=09 Volker Kirchhoff=09 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)=09 Av. dos Astronautas, 1758=09 P.O. Box 515=09 12201-970 S=E3o Jos=E9 dos Campos, SP=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 123) 229 887=09 =46ax (55 123) 218 743=09 Peter Suedfeld=09 University of British Columbia=09 Department of Psychology=09 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC VGT 124 CANADA=09 Tel. (604) 822 5713=09 =46ax (604) 822 6923=09 Peter_suedfeld@mtsa.ubc.ca =09 Warwick F. Vincent Centre D'=C9tudes Nordiques Universit=E9 Laval=09 =46acult=E9 des Sciences et de Genie=09 Biology Department Universit=E9 Laval Sainte-Fey=09 Quebec - G1K 7P4=09 CANADA=09 Tel. (418) 656 5644=09 =46ax (418) 656 2043=09 3602vwar@sml.ulaval.ca =09 Richard Denis Robarts=09 National Hydrology Research Institute=09 11 Innovation Boulevard=09 Saskatoon, Sasketchewan, S7N 3HS=09 CANADA=09 Tel. (306) 975 6047=09 =46ax (306) 975 5143=09 Robarts@nbrisv.nhrc.sk.doe.ca =09 Enrique Cordaro C=E1rdenas=09 Universidad de Chile =09 =46acultad de Ciencias y F=EDsicas=09 Mat. Dto. F=EDsica=09 Av. Blando Escalada 2008, Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 671 7367 =46ax (56 2) 671 2799=09 ecordaro@uchcevna.ceo.uchile.cl=09 Victor Marin Briame=09 Universidad de Chile=09 Depto. Ciencias Biol=F3gicas =09 Casilla 1004 - Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 271 2978=09 =46ax (56 2) 635 3951=09 vmarin@abello.seci.uchile.cl =09 Mario Palest=EDni Quiroz=09 Universidad de Chile=09 Av. Salvador 486, CC 16038-9, Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 274 1560=09 =46ax (56 2) 274 1628 =09 Benjamin Rosenbluth=09 Universidad de Chile=09 Av. Blanco Facalada, 2085 Santiago CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 696 8790 Humberto Fuenzalida=09 Comit=E9 Nacional IGBP=09 Dept. de Geof=EDsica, Universidad de Chile=09 Casilla 2777, Av. Blanco Encalata 2008, Santiago =09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 696 8790=09 =46ax (56 2) 696 8686=09 hfuenzal@Uchcevm.Cec.Uchile.Cl =09 Sergio Cabrera=09 Universidad de Chile=09 =46acultad De Ciencias M=E9dicas Norte=09 Departamento de Biolog=EDa=09 Av. Independencia 1023-C 70061, Correo 7, Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 737 6560 =09 =46ax (56 2) 737 3158=09 Leonardo G=F3nima=09 Instituto Geogr=E1fico Agustin Codazzi=09 A.A. 6721 y 53754 Cra 30 No. 48-51 Edificio. No. 4=09 Santaf=E9 de Bogot=E1=09 COLOMBIA=09 Tel. (57 1) 269 4811=09 =46ax (57 1) 268 0004 =09 Ronald F. Woodman Pollit=09 Instituto Geof=EDsico del Per=FA =09 Apartado 13-0207, Lima 13=09 PERU=09 Tel. (51 14) 942 454=09 =46ax (51 14) 792 155=09 rop@roj.org.pe =09 Carlos Eduardo Ere=F1o=09 Agregado Naval a la Embajada Argentina=09 Av. Pardo y Aliaga, Piso 12=09 San Isidro, Lima =09 PERU=09 Tel. (541) 217 576=09 =46ax (541) 303 2299=09 Rumen Bokov=09 World Meteorological Organization=09 P.O. Box 2300, Geneva 2 =09 SWITZERLAND=09 Tel. (41 22) 730 8455=09 =46ax (41 22) 740 0984=09 bojkovr@aestor.dots.doe.ca Gabriel Pisciottano IMFLA Fl Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ingenier=EDa=09 J. Herrera y Reissig 565, Montevideo 11300 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09 =46ax (59 82) 715 446=09 cliol@imfial.edu.ay=09 Bernab=E9 Gadea Echeverr=EDa=09 IONOANTARU / IAU=09 Director del Programa=09 Javier Barrios Amorin 1488=09 Buenos Aires 150, Montevideo 1100=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 960 788=09 =46ax (59 82) 962 967 iporras@cariari.ucr.cr.accctropic@nicarao.apc.org =09 Rub=E9n Caffera=09 =46acultad de Ciencias=09 J.B. Amorin 1488, Montevideo URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 484 242=09 =46ax (59 82) 409 973=09 caffera@fcien.edu.ay =09 Guillermo Berri=09 IRICP Applications and Training Pilot Project=09 IRICP House-Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory=09 Columbia University PoBox 1000/Rt 9W/IRICP House (GHB)=09 Palisades, N.Y. 10964-8000=09 USA=09 Tel. (914) 365 8765=09 =46ax (914) 365 8764=09 berri@exigente.ldgo.columbia.edu =09 Maria Vernet=09 Scripps Institution of Oceanography=09 Marine Research Division, 0218=09 La Jolla, California 92093-0218 =09 USA=09 Tel. (619) 534 5322=09 =46ax (619) 534 2997=09 m.vernet/omnet; mvernet@ucsd.edu=09 Rub=E9n Lara =09 IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09 c/o NOAA/OGP 1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Tel. (301) 589 5747=09 =46ax (301) 589 5711=09 lara@ogp.noaa.gov =09 Raquel S. Gomes IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09 c/o NOAA/OGP 1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Tel. (301) 589 5747=09 =46ax (301) 589 5711=09 Lisa Farrow=09 NOAA/OGP=09 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910 =09 USA=09 Tel. (301) 427 2089=09 =46ax (301) 427 2073=09 farrow@ogp.noaa.gov =09 Carina Lange=09 SCRIPPS Institute of Oceanography=09 9500 Gilman Drive Mailstop 0215=09 La Jolla, CA 92093-0215=09 USA=09 Tel. (619) 534 4605=09 =46ax (619) 534 0784=09 clange@UCSD.edu =09 Jorge E. Carrasco Byrd Polar Research Center=09 Ohio State University - 108 Scott Hall=09 1090 Camack Road Columbus, OH 43210-1002=09 USA=09 Tel. (614) 292 4697=09 =46ax (614) 292 1079=09 jcarras@magnus.acs.ohio.st.edu =09 George Kukla=09 Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory =09 Columbia University=09 Palisades, New York 10964-8000 =09 USA=09 Tel. (914) 365 8421=09 =46ax (914) 365 8154=09 elienw@lamont.ldgo.columbia.edu =09