In the early 1990s, when the internet was still small and difficult to navigate, two graduate students supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation developed a tool that could map how webpages link to one another. This early prototype laid the foundation for what would eventually become one of the world's largest companies: Google.
Stories like this illustrate a broader pattern. Since the 1950s, NSF has supported students, educators, researchers and entrepreneurs, building the talent pipeline that drives world-changing discoveries, economic growth and U.S. leadership.
NSF was established at a pivotal moment in U.S. history. In the years following World War II, the country's leaders recognized that scientific and engineering expertise would be critical to economic prosperity, national security and technological leadership. From its earliest days, NSF focused on building that talent.
Today, more than 36 million Americans work in science, technology, engineering and mathematics fields, a growing workforce shaped by NSF's commitment. NSF invests billions of dollars each year in this mission, strengthening opportunities across America.
On this page
Inspiring future scientists and engineers
From its earliest days, NSF has inspired K-12 students, educators and people across the nation to explore careers in science and engineering.
Credit: Courtesy of U.S. National Science Foundation
Improving K-12 STEM education
Some of NSF's earliest investments focused on strengthening K-12 science education nationwide. The agency supported researchers who, by the early 1960s, were developing new curricula for core subjects like the natural sciences and mathematics.
These efforts produced updated textbooks, instructional films and hands-on experiments that allowed students to explore scientific concepts both inside and outside the classroom. NSF also supported traveling science libraries and lecture-demonstration programs that introduced science directly into communities. By 1968, it was estimated that 24% of U.S. students in grades 9-12 were using materials in science or mathematics developed through NSF support.
At the same time, the agency invested in teachers through intensive summer institutes that brought educators to universities to learn directly from researchers, helping carry new ideas back into classrooms and strengthening science teaching across grade levels. From the introduction of NSF-supported summer institutes in 1953 through 1968, an estimated 155,000 STEM secondary school teachers received supplementary instruction.
Many of the new educational approaches that NSF supported in the 1950s and 1960s remain foundational to science education today.
Credit: Kaley Lucas/Kentucky Science Center
Connecting communities to science
NSF has long invested in informal STEM education by bringing science out of the lab into everyday settings. These efforts introduce people to the scientific process and potential STEM careers and create opportunities to engage with science in meaningful ways.
Across the country, millions engage each year with NSF-supported exhibits and programs at museums, zoos, aquariums, and other venues. These experiences deepen understanding while encouraging curiosity, observation and participation, allowing individuals to connect scientific ideas to their own communities.
As digital tools emerged, NSF expanded its reach into online platforms and mobile applications. Today, tools like Scratch introduce coding and computational thinking, helping build the next generation of STEM talent.
Building scientific careers
NSF prepares undergraduates, graduate students and early-career researchers for STEM careers by providing real-world training, ensuring the U.S. maintains its leadership in science and technology.
Credit: Kelly Pena, Boston University Photonics Center
Sparking undergraduate interest in STEM
Since 1958, the NSF Research Experiences for Undergraduates program has immersed college students in active research environments alongside scientists and engineers. Each year, about 600 sites across the U.S. and abroad, including laboratories, field sites, observatories and museums, give students early, hands-on experience with scientific and engineering research.
Since its inception, the program has supported roughly a quarter of a million students, often serving as a gateway to graduate study and research careers.
Credit: Pennsylvania State University
Investing in graduate students
Since 1952, NSF has invested in graduate training to launch scientific and engineering careers. The agency's longest-running program, the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship program (NSF GRFP), has supported more than 70,000 graduate students across a wide range of disciplines.
This investment has helped build a strong pipeline of researchers, including more than 40 Nobel laureates, who go on to contribute across academia, industry and government.
Burton Richter (1952): Nobel Prize-winning physicist (1976) who revolutionized particle physics with the discovery of the charm quark.
K. Barry Sharpless (1963): Two-time Nobel laureate in chemistry (2001, 2022) known for developing efficient methods to build molecules, including click-chemistry, with applications in drug discovery and material science.
Eric Cornell (1985): Nobel Prize-winning physicist (2001) recognized for synthesizing the first Bose-Einstein condensate in 1995, fundamentally advancing quantum mechanics.
Sergey Brin (1993): Co-founder of Google, reshaping how the world accesses information.
Wayne Westerman (1995): Co-inventor of multi-touch technology foundational to modern touchscreen interfaces.
Jessica Watkins (2012): NASA astronaut and Artemis team member who served as mission specialist aboard the International Space Station in 2022.
Credit: UC Berkeley Photo Services
Delve deeper: Learn more about the impact of CRISPR.
Supporting early-career faculty
As research careers progress beyond graduate school, NSF continues to strengthen the workforce pipeline through programs like Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER), which has supported tens of thousands of early-career faculty since 1995 in advancing research and STEM education while contributing to discovery and workforce development.
Moungi G. Bawendi (1991): Nobel Prize-winning chemist (2023) recognized for developing reliable methods to produce high-quality quantum dots used in solar cells, biomedical imaging and quantum technologies.
Carolyn Bertozzi (1997): Nobel Prize-winning chemist (2022) whose work in click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry revolutionized how scientists study biological systems and develop new treatments for diseases like cancer.
Robert Wood (2008): Known for pioneering bio-inspired micro-robotics capable of operating in unpredictable environments.
Katherine Mirica (2020): Researcher recognized for advancing wearable chemical sensors for detecting industrial and biological gases.
Natalie S. King (2020): Recognized for advancing K-12 education and expanding community-based pathways into the STEM workforce.
Muyinatu A. Lediju Bell (2024): Biomedical engineer developing innovative imaging systems that harness light and sound to improve medical diagnosis.
Expanding opportunity nationwide
As the nation's research enterprise grew in the 20th century, NSF expanded its efforts to ensure that the benefits were not limited to a small number of institutions or regions. Examples include:
Credit: National Center for Landscape Fire Analysis, University of Montana
Catalyzing innovation in every state
Since 1979, the NSF Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (NSF EPSCoR) program has directed more than $3.75 billion to states and territories that have historically received less federal funding. These investments build research capacity in these regions, bolstering local innovation economies and supporting the careers of future scientists and engineers.
Across the country, NSF EPSCoR's impact is clear. In Maine, these investments helped move wood bioproducts, such as fuels, materials and wood-based chemicals, from research to commercialization, attracting private investment and generating new patents. In Alabama, researchers used artificial intelligence to accelerate the discovery of high-performance materials for a wide range of applications, from mining to spacecraft missions. And in Montana, NSF-funded teams are developing AI-enabled optical sensors that track wildfires in real time, improving firefighters' situational awareness and response.
Credit: Florida Advanced Technological Education Center for Manufacturing
Investing in community colleges
Launched in the early 1990s, the NSF Advanced Technological Education (NSF ATE) program helps community colleges prepare technicians for high-demand industries vital to regional economies. Through the program, NSF has invested over $1.5 billion in more than 730 technical and community colleges across all U.S. states.
Each year, NSF ATE supports the education of 20,000 to 40,000 students who gain direct experience in areas such as semiconductor manufacturing, biotechnology, cybersecurity, building automation systems and energy management through internships and apprenticeships.
Credit: University of Rochester photo / J. Adam Fenster
Harnessing talent throughout America
Launched in 2024, the NSF Regional Innovation Engines program is catalyzing regional innovation ecosystems, economic growth and workforce development across key sectors, from quantum and semiconductors to biotechnology and advanced manufacturing.
For example, the NSF Florida Semiconductor Engine is expanding U.S. chip production and strengthening training pathways, from K-12 STEM programs to associate-level and master's degrees. And the NSF Advanced Sensing and Computation for Environmental Decision-making Engine in Colorado and Wyoming is establishing a Software Development Experiential Learning program leading to industry-recognized certifications, while also supporting hands-on robotics learning in K-12 classrooms through community partnerships.
Connecting research to real-world impact
NSF has also played a central role in linking research, industry and entrepreneurship — ensuring that new knowledge translates into technologies, companies and industries. Some examples include:
Credit: Boston University CELL-MET
Driving innovation in engineering
Since 1984, NSF Engineering Research Centers (ERCs) have connected universities and industry partners to advance emerging technologies. Students at these centers gain hands-on experience that links research to real-world applications across fields such as AI, biotechnology, quantum technology, advanced manufacturing, microelectronics and semiconductors.
This approach has led to practical advances — from low-cost radar systems for weather monitoring to improved medical devices and data storage technologies that support today's digital infrastructure — while opening pathways into engineering careers.
To date, NSF has funded a total of 83 ERCs across the United States, leading to more than 250 spinoff companies, 920 patents and 14,900 bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees.
Credit: CQIM
Sustaining complex research efforts
Established in 1989, the NSF Science and Technology Centers (STC) program supports longer-term, interdisciplinary research that brings together expertise across physical, computational and life sciences and engineering. These centers advance emerging areas such as quantum acoustics, optoelectronics, nanomaterials, particle accelerators and biological modeling. In the process, they prepare students and early-career professionals for collaborative, interdisciplinary research environments while driving new scientific and engineering breakthroughs.
An initial investment of $25 million in 1989 launched the first 11 STCs, and NSF has supported 59 STCs overall. The program has produced several notable achievements, including the development of a new prediction system that was able, for the first time, to calculate the location and structure of storms several hours before they developed and a revolutionary approach to corrective eye surgery now known as LASIK.
Credit: University of Maryland
Moving discoveries beyond the lab
NSF Innovation Corps (NSF I-Corps™) helps researchers explore the commercial potential of the technologies they develop. The immersive curriculum helps participants learn how to conduct user-driven research, license their technologies and launch a startup, equipping them with entrepreneurial skills that carry into careers across academia and industry.
I-Corps supported 97 teams at its launch in 2012 and has grown steadily, supporting 337 teams in 2024. More than 2,500 teams and 5,800 researchers have participated in the program. Participants have formed nearly 1,400 startups and raised $3 billion in subsequent funding.
Credit: g0d4ather - stock.adobe.com
Supporting startups and small businesses
The NSF Small Business Innovation Research and Small Business Technology Transfer programs (NSF SBIR/STTR) have supported startups and small businesses since the 1970s, enabling them to develop high-risk, high-impact technologies. Each year, NSF SBIR/STTR invests more than $250 million in about 400 early-stage companies across nearly every U.S. state and territory, helping move promising innovations towards practical use.
This early support has helped launch companies across nearly all technology areas and markets, such as AI, energy, wireless communications, medical devices, robotics, semiconductors and many more. Recipients include Qualcomm, which received two grants from SBIR/STTR in the 1980s on its way to revolutionizing the cellphone sector with a new chip. The company today has a market value of about $180 billion.
Delve deeper: Learn more about NSF's investments in small businesses.
Credit: Joe Angeles/WUSTL Photos
Preparing the next generation
As new technologies reshape the economy, NSF continues to invest in the workforce needed to drive future innovation. Through partnerships with industry, community colleges and workforce organizations, NSF is creating new pathways into high-demand fields, including opportunities for adult learners to reskill and upskill. These efforts are helping ensure that talent can emerge from every region and at every stage of the workforce.
Efforts in AI, quantum information science, biotechnology and advanced manufacturing are expanding opportunities for students and researchers to gain experience in emerging fields. NSF-led programs, such as the National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource and National AI Research Institutes, are increasing access to computing infrastructure and training, while quantum education initiatives, like the National Q-12 Education Partnership, are preparing students and teachers to engage with next-generation technologies.
A long-term investment in people
NSF's investments have built talent and ideas that power the U.S. innovation ecosystem. By supporting people at every stage — from students and educators to entrepreneurs and reskilled professionals — NSF continues to strengthen the workforce that drives discovery, fuels economic growth and addresses the challenges of the future.